The Development of Ancient Roman Latin and Its Legacy in the Romance Languages Automatic translate

Latin, originally spoken in the small territory of ancient Latium in the central part of the Apennine Peninsula, eventually became the most important language of the Western Roman Empire and gave rise to the vast family of Romance languages, which today has about 900 million speakers worldwide. Its centuries-long evolution is a unique linguistic phenomenon, demonstrating both the stability of linguistic forms and their inevitable transformation under the influence of historical processes.

The Latin language and its historical periods

The Latin language belongs to the Italic branch of the Indo-European language family. Its history is traditionally divided into several periods: the archaic or Old Latin era (before the 3rd century BC), the Old Roman period (3rd-1st centuries BC), Classical Latin (1st century BC – 2nd century AD), Late Latin (3rd-6th centuries), and Medieval Latin (6th century onwards).

In parallel with literary and official Latin, there was vernacular or vulgar Latin ) sermo vulgaris – “common speech”), which represented the spoken form of the language and served as the basis for modern Romance languages. This dichotomy between written and spoken language, between literary and vernacular forms, played a major role in the linguistic history of Europe.

Latin spread over vast territories as a result of the Roman conquests and became the language of administration, law, science and religion. With the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the subsequent fragmentation of the European space, the various variants of Vulgar Latin gradually evolved into separate Romance languages, while Classical Latin continued to be used as the language of the church, education and international communication until the 17th and 18th centuries.

Old Roman Latin

Old Roman or Archaic Latin is the earliest period of the development of the Latin language, lasting until approximately the 3rd century BC. This period is characterized by significant differences from later Classical Latin in both phonetics and grammar and vocabulary.

Alphabet and spelling

The early Latin alphabet contained only 21 letters, as opposed to the 23 letters of the classical Latin alphabet that we are accustomed to. A peculiarity of the orthography of archaic Latin was the use of the so-called C/K/Q convention, according to which the sound [k] was written with different letters depending on the following vowel: C – before [e] and [i], K – before [a], Q – before [o] and [u]. This tradition was borrowed from the Etruscans.

The letter G appeared later, probably in the 3rd century BC, as a modification of the letter C with a small vertical stroke. Before that, the letter C was used to denote both the voiced [g] and the voiceless [k]. After the introduction of the letter G, the letter C came to denote predominantly the voiceless consonant [k], and G – the voiced [g].

Phonetic features

An important characteristic of archaic Latin was the presence of stress on the first syllable of a word, while in classical Latin stress was determined by the position and length of the penultimate syllable. This reorganization of the accentual system occurred around 250 BC.

Old Roman Latin also retained full vowels in unstressed syllables, which were reduced in later Latin. The final -m sound in polysyllabic words was often dropped, as reflected in inscriptions from this period. There was a weakening of final consonants, especially -s after short vowels, as seen in inscriptions such as Cornelio instead of Cornelios (the classical form Cornelius ).

Grammatical characteristics

The grammatical system of Archaic Latin was more complex and less regular than that of Classical Latin. It retained more archaic forms and constructions inherited from Proto-Indo-European.

Relative clauses in Old Latin were sometimes constructed differently from those in Classical Latin. For example, a relative pronoun could function simply as a determiner of a noun in a noun phrase, continuing an Indo-European pattern with parallels in Greek and Sanskrit.

The morphological system of archaic Latin was characterized by a great variety of suffixes for the formation of abstract nouns. To express the concept of "filthiness" in Old Latin texts, the forms squālitās , squālitūdō , squālēs or squālor could be used, of which only the last survived into Classical Latin.

Classical Latin

Classical Latin is the literary form of the Latin language accepted as the standard by writers of the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. This period of Latin’s development spans roughly from 75 BCE to the 3rd century CE, when it gradually evolved into Late Latin.

Formation of the standard

Cicero and his contemporaries in the late Republic called the Latin language lingua latina or sermo latinus , distinguishing the common speech of the people, which they called Vulgar Latin ) sermo vulgaris and sermo vulgi ), from the higher register they called latinitas , sometimes translated as "Latinness".

Latinitas was also called sermo familiaris ("speech of good families"), sermo urbanus ("speech of the city") and, in rare cases, sermo nobilis ("noble speech"). In addition to the noun Latinitas , it was designated by the adverb latine ("in good Latin", literally "in Latin") or its comparative latinius ("in better Latin", literally "more Latin").

It was the language taught in schools and to which normative rules applied. When special subjects such as poetry or rhetoric were considered, additional rules were applied. The classical period was characterized by the codification of morphology and the rigid fixation of fluctuating forms.

Phonological system

Classical Latin had ten natural phonemic monophthongs: the five short vowels /i/, /e/, /a/, /o/, and /u/, and their long counterparts /iː/, /eː/, /aː/, /oː/, and /uː/. Two additional monophthongs, /y/ and /yː/, were sometimes used for ⟨y⟩ in borrowings from Greek by educated speakers, but most speakers probably replaced them with /i(ː)/ or /u(ː)/.

The short vowels /i/, /e/, /o/ and /u/ were pronounced with a relatively open quality, approximately as [ɪ] [ɛ] [ɔ] [ʊ], and the corresponding long vowels with a relatively closed quality, approximately as [iː] [eː] [oː] [uː]. This feature is confirmed by attested spelling errors such as ⟨trebibos⟩ instead of tribibus or ⟨minsis⟩ instead of mēnsis .

The consonant system of Classical Latin included the phonemes /p/, /t/, /k/, /b/, /d/, /ɡ/, /f/, /s/, /h/, /m/, /n/, /l/, /r/. Borrowings from Greek also used the aspirated consonants /pʰ/, /tʰ/, and /kʰ/, which were written as ⟨ph⟩, ⟨th⟩, and ⟨ch⟩.

The sound /z/ appeared as a rendering of the Greek letter ⟨ζ⟩ in borrowings beginning around the 1st century BC. In initial position, this sound was pronounced as [z], and between vowels – as a doubled [zz].

Morphological and syntactic features

Classical Latin had six regularly used cases in the declension of nouns and adjectives (nominative, vocative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative), with traces of the locative case in some noun declensions.

In syntax the freedom which had previously existed was curtailed; thus the use of the accusative and infinitive in oratio obliqua became obligatory, and a fine distinction was required in the use of the subjunctive. Where earlier writers had used prepositional phrases, the authors of the classical period preferred pure case forms of nouns as more concise and precise.

Complex sentences with subtle use of various conjunctions became a feature of the classical language, and the possibilities offered by the flexible word order were effectively used. These syntactic features made classical Latin a powerful and flexible tool for expressing complex thoughts and arguments.

Vulgar Latin

Vulgar Latin (from Latin sermo vulgaris , "common speech") is the general name for the spoken dialects of Latin that were spoken primarily in the western provinces of the Roman Empire before these dialects increasingly diverged and evolved into the early Romance languages. It is important to remember that this is an abstract term, not the name of any specific dialect.

Characteristics of Vulgar Latin

Vulgar Latin differed from the literary language of Classical Latin in its pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. Some features of Vulgar Latin appeared only in the late imperial period. Other features were probably present in colloquial Latin, at least in its basilect forms, much earlier.

Since no one recorded the everyday speech of Latin speakers during the period phonetically, scholars of Vulgar Latin must study it through indirect methods. Our knowledge of Vulgar Latin comes from several sources: deviations from classical norms in inscriptions and informal texts, comments by grammarians of the period about "incorrect" speech, reconstruction based on comparisons of Romance languages, and evidence of borrowings from Latin into other languages.

Vulgar Latin should not be confused with Late Latin, which is the literary form of the language used after the classical period, although Late Latin did reflect an increased use of Vulgar Latin elements.

Attitude to classical Latin

The term Romance derives from the Vulgar Latin adverb romanice , "in the Roman way", derived from romanicus : as in the expression romanice loqui , "to speak Roman" (i.e. the Latin vernacular), as opposed to latine loqui , "to speak Latin" (Medieval Latin, the conservative version of the language used in writing and formal contexts or as a lingua franca), and barbarice loqui , "to speak barbarian" (the non-Latin languages ​​of peoples living outside the Roman Empire).

There is sometimes a perception that Vulgar Latin is a "corrupted" version of Classical Latin. However, from a linguistic point of view, this is incorrect. Vulgar Latin is a natural evolution of the spoken form of Latin, which followed its own patterns of development, which differed in many ways from the artificially maintained norms of literary Latin.

Regional variations

Much of the Romance-speaking area in Europe has traditionally been a dialect continuum, where the speech variety of one place differed only slightly from that of its neighbour, but over greater distances these differences could accumulate to the point where two distant places spoke what could clearly be described as separate languages. This makes it difficult to draw linguistic boundaries, and so there is no clear way to divide the Romance varieties into separate languages.

Vulgar Latin was not uniform throughout the empire and was influenced by local languages ​​and dialects in the various provinces. These regional differences became the basis for the subsequent differentiation of the Romance languages. For example, in Gaul, Vulgar Latin was influenced by Celtic languages, in Iberia by Iberian languages, and in Dacia (modern Romania) by Dacian and other Balkan languages.

Phonetic and grammatical features

One of the important phonetic changes in Vulgar Latin was the loss of phonemic vowel length. Vowels became automatically pronounced as long in stressed open syllables (i.e. when followed by only one consonant) and as short in all other cases. This situation still persists in modern Italian.

In most areas (technically, in Italo-Western languages), the close-close vowels /ɪ ʊ/ have lowered and merged with the high-mid vowels /eo/. As a result, the Latin words pira "pear" and vēra "true" have come to rhyme (e.g. Italian and Spanish pera, vera ).

The grammatical system of Vulgar Latin tended to simplify and regularize the declensions and conjugations. The case system was simplified and the word order became more fixed to compensate for the loss of case endings. Analytical forms of verbs emerged and developed, which later evolved into the tense system of the Romance languages.

Another important change was the appearance of articles, which did not exist in classical Latin. The definite article developed from the demonstrative pronouns ille , illa , illud , and the indefinite article from the numeral unus "one".

Late Latin

Late Latin is the scientific name for a form of literary Latin from late antiquity. Dictionary definitions of Late Latin date this period from the 3rd to the 6th centuries CE, with an extension to the 7th century in the Iberian Peninsula. This somewhat ambiguously defined version of Latin was used between the Classical Latin and Medieval Latin eras.

Historical context

Late Latin developed in the context of significant political, social and religious changes in the Roman Empire. The period of late antiquity was characterized by crises in the empire, the growing influence of Christianity, the gradual weakening of central authority and the growing influence of barbarian peoples on the borders of the empire.

As a written language, Late Latin is not identical with Vulgar Latin or the spoken Latin of the post-imperial period. The latter served as the ancestor of the Romance languages. Although Late Latin reflects an increase in the use of Vulgar Latin vocabulary and constructions, it remains largely classical in its general features, depending on the author using it.

Linguistic features of late Latin

Some late Latin texts are more literary and classical, but others tend more towards the vernacular. As such, it is an important source of information about changes in the spoken language, without being a simple reproduction of the state of the spoken language of the time.

Late Latin is not the same as the Christian Patristic Latin used in the theological works of the early Christian Fathers. While Christian writings used a subset of Late Latin, pagans such as Ammianus Marcellinus or Macrobius also wrote extensively in Late Latin, especially in the early part of the period.

Late Latin developed when large numbers of non-Latin speaking peoples on the empire’s borders were subdued and assimilated. Some features of Late Latin even found their way into church texts, although Church Latin remained more conservative and closer to classical norms.

Proto-Romance language

Proto-Romance is the result of applying the comparative method to reconstruct the last common ancestor of the Romance languages. To what extent, if at all, such a reconstruction reflects the actual state of the language is a matter of debate. The closest real analogue would be spoken Late Latin.

Reconstruction of the phonological system

As a result of the loss of phonemic length, Proto-Romance initially developed a system with nine different qualitative distinctions in monophthongs, where only the original /a aː/ merged. However, many of these vowels soon merged.

The simplest result was in Sardinian, where the former long and short vowels in Latin simply merged, e.g. /ɛ eː/ > /ɛ/, /ɪ iː/ > /i/. This resulted in a simple five-vowel system /a ɛ i ɔ u/.

However, in most areas (technically, in the Italo-Western languages), the close-close vowels /ɪ ʊ/ lowered and merged with the high-mid vowels /eo/. As a result, Latin pira "pear" and vēra "true" came to rhyme. Likewise, Latin nucem (from nux "nut") and vōcem (from vōx "voice") became Italian noce, voce , Portuguese noz, voz and French noix, voix . This resulted in the seven-vowel system /a ɛ ei ɔ ou/, which still survives in conservative languages ​​such as Italian and Portuguese, and is slightly transformed in Spanish (where /ɛ/ > /je/, /ɔ/ > /we/).

The consonant system of Proto-Romance underwent significant changes compared to Classical Latin. The voiced labial consonants /b/ and /w/ (represented as ⟨b⟩ and ⟨v⟩ respectively) developed a fricative [β] as an intervocalic allophone. This is evident from the orthography; in medieval times, the consonant spelling ⟨v⟩ was often used for what was ⟨b⟩ in Classical Latin, or the two spellings were used interchangeably.

Reconstruction of the grammatical system

Proto-Romance underwent significant changes in its grammatical system compared to Classical Latin. The most obvious difference between Latin and the Romance languages ​​is the comparative autonomy of morphemic units, especially words. In the Romance languages, Latin inflectional endings have been significantly reduced, and more reliance is placed on syntactic constructions to convey the meaning of a sentence; that is, the Romance languages ​​are more "analytic" than the predominantly "synthetic" Latin.

A consequence of this is that word order in Romance languages ​​is less flexible, since it has become the primary means of showing relationships between words in a sentence.

All Romance languages ​​continue to mark plurals morphologically for nouns and adjectives, although this is not always done consistently in modern colloquial French. In Western Romance languages, the plural marker is usually -s, derived from the Latin accusative plural ending. In Italian and Romanian, however, plurality is shown by a final -i (which in Romanian "softens" the preceding consonant) or, in the case of some feminine nouns, a final -e.

The original Latin system of six cases has been largely lost in most Romance languages, with the exception of Romanian, which retains a three-case system for nominal elements. The verb system has also undergone significant changes, with the development of new analytical forms to express different tenses, moods, and aspects.

Phonological evolution

The phonological evolution from Classical Latin to Proto-Romance and then to the individual Romance languages ​​was a complex process involving many sound changes. Below is a rough overview of the sound changes from Classical Latin to Proto-Romance.

General changes

One of the most significant changes was the loss of phonemic vowel length. In the Proto-Romance period, vowels became automatically pronounced as long in stressed open syllables (i.e. when followed by only one consonant) and as short everywhere else.

The /h/ sound was completely lost in all positions. If this resulted in identical short vowels colliding, they simply formed the corresponding long vowel, as in /koˈhorte/ > /ˈkoːrte/.

Final (unstressed) /m/ was lost without trace in polysyllabic words, as in /ˈnunkʷam/ > /ˈnunkʷa/. In (stressed) monosyllabic words it was usually retained as /n/, as in /ˈkʷem/ > /ˈkʷen/ > Spanish quién .

Clusters consisting of a stop consonant followed by a liquid consonant moved the stress position forward, as in /ˈinteɡram/ > /inˈteɡra/.

The /n/ sound was lost before fricatives, leaving the preceding vowel lengthened, as in /ˈsponsa/ > /ˈspoːsa/.

Changes in the vowel system

Complex processes of fusion and diphthongization have occurred in the vowel system. The monophthongization of the diphthongs /ae̯/ to /ɛː/ and /oe̯/ to /eː/ occurred in some rural dialects during the classical period and gradually became the general norm.

In the Romance languages, there was a significant redistribution of vowel phonemes, as a result of which, in most of them, a seven-vowel system /a ɛ ei ɔ ou/ was formed, which then underwent further changes in different languages.

The Western Romance languages ​​underwent significant changes in stressed vowels in open syllables. In particular, /ɛ/ often diphthongized to /je/, and /ɔ/ to /we/ or /wo/.

Changes in the consonant system

Consonants also underwent a number of changes depending on their position in the word. One of the important processes was the weakening (lenization) of consonants in intervocalic position.

The voiced labial consonants /b/ and /w/ (written ⟨b⟩ and ⟨v⟩ respectively) developed a fricative allophone [β] between vowels. In many Romance languages ​​this sound later developed into /v/, but in some (Spanish, Galician) the reflexes of /b/ and /w/ merged into a single phoneme.

A few other consonants were "softened" in intervocalic position in the Western Romance languages ​​(Spanish, Portuguese, French, Northern Italian), but not usually phonemically in the rest of Italy, and apparently not at all in Romanian. The dividing line between the two sets of dialects is called the La Spezia-Rimini line, and is one of the most important isoglossic links of the Romance dialects.

Palatalization of consonants before front vowels was another important process that led to the emergence of new consonant phonemes in the Romance languages. For example, Latin /k/ and /g/ before /e/ and /i/ palatalized into various affricates and fricatives in different Romance languages.

Romance languages

Romance languages ​​are a language family within the Indo-European languages. They are descended from Vulgar Latin. The most widely spoken Romance languages ​​are Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, and Romanian.

They are called "Romance languages" because they are descended from Latin, the language spoken in the Western Roman Empire. Their system of grammatical inflections has been simplified, losing much of the complex case structure of classical Latin.

Classification of Romance Languages

There are several approaches to classifying Romance languages. The most common is to divide them into several main groups:

1. Western Romance languages: – Ibero-Romance (Spanish, Portuguese, Galician, Asturleonese/Mirandese, Aragonese, Ladino) – Occitano-Romance (Catalan/Valencian, Occitan) – Gallo-Romance (French/Oïl languages, Franco-Provençal (Arpitan)) – Rhaeto-Romance (Romance, Ladin, Friulian) – Gallo-Italian (Piedmontese, Ligurian, Lombard, Emilian, Romagnol) – Venetian (classification disputed) – Italo-Dalmatian (Italian, Sicilian, Neapolitan, Dalmatian, Istrian)
2. Eastern Romance languages: - Romanian - Aromanian - Megleno-Romanian - Istro-Romanian
3. Sardinian language: - Campidanese - Logudorese

Sardinian is often considered a separate branch of the Romance languages ​​due to its archaic features and differences from other Romance languages.

Geographical distribution

Romance languages ​​spread throughout the world due to the period of European colonialism beginning in the 15th century; there are over 900 million speakers of Romance languages ​​worldwide, mainly in the Americas, Europe, and parts of Africa.

Portuguese, French and Spanish also have many non-native speakers and are widely used as lingua francas. There are also numerous regional Romance languages ​​and dialects. All five of the most widely spoken Romance languages ​​are also official languages ​​of the European Union.

The five most widely spoken Romance languages ​​by number of speakers are:

• Spanish (489 million): Official language in Spain, Mexico, Equatorial Guinea, SADR, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and most of Central and South America
• Portuguese (240 million): official in Portugal, Brazil, Portuguese-speaking Africa, East Timor and Macau
• French (74 million): official in 26 countries
• Italian (67 million): official in Italy, Vatican City, San Marino, Switzerland; minority language in Croatia; regional in Slovenia and Brazil
• Romanian (25 million): official in Romania, Moldova, and the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina in Serbia; minority language in Hungary, the rest of Serbia, and Ukraine.

Western Romance languages

The Western Romance languages ​​are the largest and most diverse group of Romance languages. They include the Ibero-Romance, Gallo-Romance, Rhaeto-Romance and Italo-Romance languages.

Ibero-Romance languages

The Ibero-Romance languages ​​are spoken on the Iberian Peninsula and in the former colonies of Spain and Portugal. The main languages ​​of this group are Spanish and Portuguese, which occupy first and second place among all Romance languages ​​in terms of the number of speakers.

Spanish has a number of features that distinguish it from other Romance languages. In phonetics, this includes, for example, the transformation of Latin /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ into the diphthongs /je/ and /we/ in stressed positions. In vocabulary, Spanish has retained some archaic Latin words that have been lost in other Romance languages, while also incorporating a significant number of Arabic loanwords as a result of Muslim rule in the Iberian Peninsula.

Portuguese differs from Spanish in a number of phonetic features, such as the nasalization of vowels and the reduction of unstressed vowels. In addition, Portuguese has retained some archaic features, such as the personal infinitive, which are absent from most other Romance languages.

Galician, spoken in the Spanish province of Galicia, is closely related to Portuguese and is sometimes considered a dialect of it. Asturleonese (or Asturian) and Aragonese are minor languages ​​of northern Spain that retain some archaic features of Old Spanish.

Ladino (or Judezmo) is the language of Sephardic Jews, which developed from medieval Spanish and retained many features of 15th-century Spanish. It uses the Hebrew alphabet and includes loanwords from Hebrew, Aramaic, Arabic, Turkish, and other languages.

Gallo-Romance languages

Gallo-Romance languages ​​are spoken mainly in the territory of modern France, parts of Belgium, Switzerland and northern Italy. The main language of this group is French.

French has undergone the most radical changes of all the Romance languages ​​compared to Latin. In phonetics, this has resulted in the loss of most final consonants, the nasalization of vowels before nasal consonants and the subsequent loss of these consonants, and numerous vowel changes. In grammar, French is characterized by the almost complete loss of inflectional endings on nouns and adjectives and the development of a strict word order to express grammatical relationships.

Occitan (or Provençal) was an important literary language in medieval Europe and is still spoken in southern France, some valleys in Italy and Catalonia. It has retained more archaic features than French and is characterized by greater phonetic and grammatical affinity with other Romance languages.

Franco-Provençal (also known as Arpitan) is spoken in the regions between France, Italy and Switzerland and is an intermediate language between Occitan and the Oïl languages ​​(including standard French).

Eastern Romance languages

The Eastern Romance languages ​​are a distinct branch of the Romance language family, spoken in the Balkan Peninsula. This group includes Romanian, Moldovan (considered a variant of Romanian by many linguists), Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian, and Istro-Romanian.

Romanian and Moldovan

Romanian is the main representative of the Eastern Romance languages ​​and the official language of Romania and Moldova (where it is constitutionally called "Moldovan"). Romanian has retained many archaic features of Latin, such as the three-case system (nominative/accusative, genitive/dative, and vocative) for nouns and pronouns.

At the same time, Romanian has acquired a number of features that distinguish it from the Western Romance languages ​​and link it to the so-called "Balkan language union." These include, for example, the postpositive definite article (attached to the end of a noun), the formation of the future tense using the verb "to want," the use of a special form of the infinitive, etc.

The vocabulary of Romanian also differs from that of Western Romance languages. Although the basis of the vocabulary is formed by words of Latin origin, Romanian includes a significant number of borrowings from Slavic languages, Hungarian, Turkish and other languages ​​of the Balkan region.

Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian and Istro-Romanian

Aromanian is a language spoken by the Aromanians, an ethnic group living in Greece, Albania, North Macedonia and other countries of the Balkan Peninsula. It is closely related to Romanian, but has a number of differences in phonetics, grammar and vocabulary.

Megleno-Romanian is a language spoken by a small group of Meglenites living on the border of Greece and North Macedonia. The language is endangered as the number of its speakers is constantly decreasing.

Istro-Romanian, spoken in the Croatian region of Istria, is the westernmost of the Eastern Romance languages. It is also critically endangered, with fewer than 500 native speakers.

All these minor Eastern Romance languages ​​have been strongly influenced by neighboring Balkan languages, especially Greek, Albanian and the Slavic languages, and have acquired many features of the Balkan linguistic union.

The Sardinian language and its special position

Sardinian (or more precisely, a group of closely related dialects) occupies a special place among the Romance languages. It is spoken on the island of Sardinia in Italy and is often considered by linguists as a separate branch of the Romance family due to its archaic features and differences from both Western and Eastern Romance languages.

Archaic features of the Sardinian language

Sardinian is considered the most conservative of all the Romance languages ​​in terms of phonology. It has preserved the Latin five-vowel system (/a ɛ i ɔ u/), where the former long and short vowels in Latin simply merged without changing quality, unlike most other Romance languages, where more complex changes occurred.

Another archaic feature of Sardinian is the retention of the velar consonants /k/ and /g/ before the front vowels /e/ and /i/, where palatalization occurred in other Romance languages. For example, Latin centum "hundred" became kentu in Sardinian, while in Italian it is cento [ʧɛnto], in Spanish ciento [θjento], in French cent [sɑ̃].

Sardinian has also retained some Latin words that have been lost in other Romance languages, and has its own unique system of forming plurals of nouns.

Dialects of the Sardinian language

The main dialects of Sardinian are Logudorese, spoken in the central-northern part of the island, and Campidanese, used in the southern part. Logudorese is considered more conservative and closer to Latin, while Campidanese has undergone more changes, particularly under the influence of Catalan and Spanish.

In addition to these main dialects, in the north of Sardinia there are also the Gallurese and Sassarese dialects, which have been strongly influenced by Corsican and Tuscan and are sometimes considered as separate languages.

General characteristics of the Romance languages

The Romance languages, despite their diversity and differences, have a number of common characteristics that distinguish them from other Indo-European languages ​​and indicate their common origin from Latin.

Phonological features

In the field of phonology, Romance languages ​​are characterized by a number of common features, such as:

• Predominance of open syllables (ending in a vowel sound)
• The presence of nasalized vowels in many languages
• Tendency to palatalize consonants before front vowels
• Weakening and disappearance of intervocalic consonants
• Simplification of consonant clusters
• Diphthongization of short open e and o in some contexts

However, there are also significant differences between the Romance languages ​​in the area of ​​phonology. For example, French is characterized by the loss of most final consonants and the development of nasalized vowels as separate phonemes, while Italian has retained geminated consonants and has a relatively simple vowel system.

Morphological features

In morphology, the Romance languages ​​exhibit the following common features:

• Simplification of the Latin case system (except Romanian, which retained a three-case system)
• Development of articles (definite and indefinite) from Latin demonstrative pronouns and the numeral "one"
• Preservation of the categories of gender (masculine and feminine) and number (singular and plural) for nouns, adjectives and determinants
• Development of analytical forms of verbs to express different tenses, moods and aspects
• Formation of degrees of comparison of adjectives using analytical constructions (with the exception of some synthetic forms in individual languages)

Syntactic features

Syntactically, the Romance languages ​​show a transition from the relatively free word order of Latin to a more fixed SVO (subject-verb-object) order. However, the degree of fixity of word order varies from language to language, with the most strict order in French and the most flexible in Romanian.

Other common syntactic characteristics include:

• Preposition of attributes (articles, demonstrative pronouns, etc.) and postposition of modifiers (adjectives, relative clauses) in relation to a noun (with some exceptions)
• Using prepositions instead of case endings to express syntactic relations
• Development of a complex system of subordinating conjunctions and union words
• Using personal pronouns as subjects even when verb endings indicate person and number (with variations from language to language)

Cross-linguistic projects of Romance languages

Given the close relationship of the Romance languages ​​and their significant mutual intelligibility, various attempts have been made to create artificial languages ​​that could serve as a means of communication between speakers of different Romance languages.

Artificial Romance Languages

One of the best-known artificial Romance languages ​​is Interlingua, created by the International Auxiliary Language Association in the 1950s. Interlingua is based on the common vocabulary of Western European languages, primarily Romance languages, and has a simplified grammar. It was designed for use as an international auxiliary language, especially in scientific and technical communication.

Other artificial Romance languages ​​include Lingua Romana Universala (created in 1868), Novial (1934), Interroman (1937), and Romanid (1956). These projects vary in their approach to creating a common Romance language, with some aiming for maximum naturalism, while others prefer greater regularity and simplicity.

Pan-Romance Language Projects

A pan-Romance language or Romance interlanguage is a codified linguistic variety that synthesizes variations of the Romance languages ​​and is intended to facilitate mutual communication between speakers of different Romance languages.

Romance Neolatino (or simply "Neolatino") is a naturalistic pan-Romance zonal auxiliary language proposed as a standard language for the Romance languages ​​as a whole, to facilitate communication between speakers of Romance languages ​​by complementing (not replacing) the standards that exist locally (Portuguese, Spanish, etc.). In addition to its intended role in the Latin world, Romance Neolatino is proposed to create an alternative language policy for Europe, in combination with interlanguages ​​for other language families (e.g. Interslavic).

Romanova is another Pan-Romance project that is characterized by the absence of verbal personal inflections, although noun agreement is optional. As a result, it can appear Pan-Romance when the subject of sentences is in the third person.

The boundaries between pan-Romance languages ​​and some other constructed languages ​​based on Romance languages ​​are not always clear-cut. For example, Lingua Romana Giorgia has elements of Italian and Vulgar Latin, but is closest to Spanish, so it is not very representative of Romance languages ​​as a whole.

These language projects, although not widely disseminated, represent an interesting experiment in linguistics and may have some value in the context of Romance linguistic research and multilingual communication.

The evolution of Latin from its archaic forms to the modern Romance languages ​​is a fascinating example of linguistic change over two millennia. Classical Latin, standardized in the writings of Cicero, Virgil, and other Roman authors, became the model literary language, while Vulgar Latin continued to develop in speech, gradually transforming into the individual Romance languages.

The disintegration of the single Latin linguistic space has led to a rich diversity of Romance languages, each of which has retained the common features of its ancestor but has also acquired unique characteristics as a result of different historical, geographical and cultural influences. From conservative Sardinian to innovative French, from Western Romance to Eastern Romance, they all demonstrate different paths of evolution of the common Latin heritage.

The study of Latin and its legacy in the Romance languages ​​remains an important area of ​​linguistic research, shedding light on the mechanisms of language change and the interaction of different language systems over long periods of time. This legacy is also an important part of European and world cultural history, linking modernity with the ancient world.