Photogrammetry in contemporary painting Automatic translate

Photogrammetry is a method for creating three-dimensional models of objects based on a series of photographs taken from different angles. Originally developed for cartography and architectural measurements in the 19th century, the technology has found unexpected applications in the visual arts in the last two decades. Contemporary artists, restorers, and museum curators use photogrammetric methods to document works, create new forms of artistic expression, and expand the possibilities of traditional painting.

Technological foundations of photogrammetry

The photogrammetry process is based on Structure from Motion (SfM) technology, which analyzes multiple overlapping images of an object. Computer vision algorithms identify common points across different photographs and calculate their spatial positions. The software first creates a sparse point cloud, then a dense one, which is converted into a 3D polygonal mesh. The final stage involves texture mapping — color information from the original photographs — to the resulting geometry.

Modern photogrammetric solutions such as RealityCapture, Agisoft Metashape, and 3DF Zephyr can process thousands of images and create models with billions of polygons. RealityCapture operates linearly — doubling the amount of input data doubles the processing time, making the process predictable. These programs extract texture information by recognizing dense patterns on surfaces: text, wood grain, facial features, and patterns.

The quality of the result depends on several factors. Objects with uniform textures or reflective surfaces pose challenges for the algorithms. Proper lighting settings are crucial — even lighting without harsh shadows ensures accurate surface reconstruction.

Documentation of painting by museum institutions

Major museums around the world are implementing photogrammetry to create digital archives of their collections. The Cleveland Museum has developed a 3D scanning methodology that combines photographic accuracy with metric scale data. This technology enables the creation of models with complex reflective surfaces and fine details, traditionally considered problematic for photogrammetry.

Documenting paintings at gigapixel resolution — around 1,000 megapixels and higher — is becoming the standard for leading institutions. The Museum of Fine Arts in Valencia has applied the SfM photogrammetry methodology to create a detailed documentation of altarpieces. The process begins in a photo studio, where the photographer takes a series of overlapping images, capturing each part of the work multiple times. The images are loaded into 3D modeling software, which, after several processing stages, creates the final model.

In 2019, the Prado Museum scanned Fra Angelico’s "Annunciation" immediately after a major restoration. The Factum Foundation used a Lucida scanner and panoramic photography to record the three-dimensional geometry and color, while the museum conducted infrared reflectography and radiography. The results help conservators and curators better understand the painting’s current condition and the history of previous restorations.

Gigapixel visualization enables detailed, interactive viewing through virtual museum exhibits. Viewers can immerse themselves in the artwork, revealing brushstrokes, microcracks in the paint layer, and the texture of the canvas — details invisible during normal viewing, even at close range.

Application in restoration and conservation

Photogrammetry is transforming the practice of documenting restoration work. In 1975, Italian scientist Cesare Brandi formulated a restoration theory that stated that all interventions should be completely reversible. Detailed documentation of all stages of the conservation process, with the ability to subsequently retrieve information, is becoming essential.

A study of a Byzantine icon at the Cyprus Museum of Byzantine Art demonstrated the use of change detection algorithms in combination with photogrammetry for restoration monitoring. Multi-epoch photographic recording enabled automatic and accurate identification of transformations of the painted surface at different stages of the work. The methodology captured both macro-changes and the smallest details, such as retouching of shoulder profiles and filling of gaps in the subjects’ clothing.

The Romanesque wall paintings of St. Botolph’s Church in Hardham, UK, were the subject of experimental monitoring using SfM photogrammetry. The methodology was developed as an accessible, portable, non-invasive, and repeatable system for monitoring the state of conservation. Commercially available photographic equipment and free software were used to generate and compare 3D point clouds. The technique was able to identify changes down to a scale of 0.5 millimeters.

The murals of Valencia Cathedral by Paolo de San Leocadio and Francesco Pagano were studied using multispectral photogrammetry. The workflow combined non-invasive imaging techniques from ultraviolet and visible to near-infrared. Combining spectral ranges in hybrid false-color images and analyzing them using NDVI, NDPI, and PCA methods allowed us to reveal details of the execution technique and state of conservation.

Photogrammetry as a creative tool

Contemporary artists are integrating photogrammetry directly into their creative process. French artist Dimitri Daniloff uses the technology to create works that deform the mundane and invent new social environments. His encounter with photogrammetry has expanded his artistic possibilities — the process of constructing three-dimensional models from multiple camera angles allows for the creation of a social canvas where bodies are intentionally transformed. New spaces emerge on the edges of reality, where the viewer becomes the protagonist.

Taiwanese artist Ya-Wen Fu, who works between Germany and Taiwan, uses 3D scanning to reproduce and scale her objects. Scanning with an Artec Spider scanner and post-processing in Artec Studio allows for the creation of scalable and editable digital models. The 3D artist processes the scan data, creating an object suitable for 3D printing at any scale.

Film matte painters incorporate photogrammetry into their production pipeline. The methodology involves creating a model from a series of images and then importing it into Mari or Substance Painter for texturing. Projecting photographic images onto a 3D model allows for photorealism unattainable with traditional hand-painting methods.

Hyperrealism and photographic references

The hyperrealist movement, a development of photorealism, is based on Jean Baudrillard’s philosophy of "simulating what never existed." Hyperrealist paintings and sculptures create a convincing illusion based on a simulated reality — digital photography. While photorealism emulated analog photography, hyperrealism uses high-resolution digital images created by digital cameras and displayed on computers.

Hyperrealist artists use high-resolution photographs as their primary source material, analyzing every nuance of light, shadow, reflection, and texture. This requires a deep immersion in the interplay of light and form — understanding how light sources create specific shadow shapes and how light envelops curved surfaces. The goal is to capture not just a simulacrum, but the very essence of visual reality.

Professional artists regularly use photographic references across all disciplines. Fine art artists employ live models, create still lifes, study biological references, or organize photo shoots. Renowned American illustrators Joseph Christian Leyendecker and Norman Rockwell are renowned for their use of references — Leyendecker often used his partner Charles Beach, while Rockwell organized entire photo shoots with the photographer’s help.

Some concept artists directly trace parts of photographs, create photobashings, or use 3D models as a starting point. 3D modeling and reference images are vital for creating representational works with complex lighting and shading.

Texturing and surface mapping

Photogrammetric texturing combines the advantages of computer photogrammetry with laser scanning. Laser scanning consistently produces more accurate geometric data than photogrammetry, but photogrammetry typically generates more accurate textures. This methodology applies photogrammetric textures to laser-scanned geometry, enabling the creation of highly accurate digital models.

When a texture map is removed from a photogrammetric model, the surfaces of smooth objects often appear bumpy or uneven, while complex surfaces are oversimplified. A combined approach solves this problem: precisely mapping photogrammetric textures onto the geometric data of laser scanned 3D models produces a digital model that combines the geometry of laser scans with photorealistic textures.

The KIRI Engine 3D scanning application captures both geometric and texture data, reconstructing highly detailed digital models using photogrammetry. The technology analyzes multiple high-resolution images from different angles to generate precise textures applied to the 3D model. The result is a fully UV-mapped model with realistic surface details.

The process of creating photoscanned textures for use in digital art involves several steps. Reality Capture is most often recommended for photoscanning surfaces due to its ability to create highly accurate 3D versions of real-world surfaces. Once a surface scan is created, it’s easy to extract all the necessary real-world information — displacement maps, normals, color, and ambient occlusion.

Digital tools and software

RealityCapture is photogrammetric software for creating seamless 3D models from unordered photographs or laser scans. Common applications include cultural heritage (art, archaeology, architecture), full-body scanning, gaming, surveying, mapping, visual effects, and virtual reality. Features include image registration, automatic calibration, mesh generation, coloring, texturing, georeferencing, and exporting in various formats.

The program can combine camera images and laser scans with low hardware requirements. Its linear operation means that doubling the input data also doubles the processing time. Museums and conservation studios use RealityCapture to create digital models of artworks for documentation, virtual exhibitions, and educational initiatives.

Agisoft Metashape and 3DF Zephyr are alternative solutions also frequently used for surface scanning. Comparative studies of various photogrammetric software show that average residual registration or photogrammetric assessment errors range from 4 to 16 millimeters, depending on the software chosen, the size and complexity of the object, and environmental conditions. The best completeness and quality of the resulting 3D model is achieved by combining laser scanning and image data.

Semi-professional mobile apps like Polycam are democratizing access to photogrammetry. The creation of an interactive 3D model of a mural by artist Roberto Cueva del Río demonstrated the value of a precise and non-invasive digital workflow that supports conservation and educational goals.

Methodological challenges

Documenting paintings presents unique technical challenges, given the often large scale of the works, the uneven topography of the paint layer, the range of surface attributes, and access issues. Using photogrammetry to record both the topography and fine surface details of murals requires careful attention to shooting settings.

The Byzantine icon required accurate lighting settings and consistent, uniform illumination to avoid radiometric artifacts that could interfere with photogrammetric reconstruction and the identification of restoration phases. Correct alignment of each set of images must be as precise as possible to avoid errors.

Large ceiling paintings in churches and palaces pose additional challenges due to the room’s geometry, lighting conditions, and limited access. The Plafond3D project developed CHAPI (Cultural Heritage Automated Photogrammetric Imaging) — a low-cost, semi-automated solution for capturing large vaulted ceiling paintings in high detail. This methodology enables efficient capture with a consistent photogrammetric network in a limited time.

Hypogeum structures present methodological challenges due to the lack of natural light, confined spaces, and the presence of fragile painted surfaces. An integrated workflow for documenting Orco’s Tomb in Tarquinia combined terrestrial laser scanning, photogrammetry, and light painting techniques. Light painting, borrowed from photographic practice, was used as a dynamic lighting strategy during the photogrammetric survey to overcome issues of uneven illumination and harsh shadows.

Maintaining color accuracy

The color of works of art is a valuable source of information that must be properly processed and preserved, as digital tools can introduce variations in values or even lose them. Research into maintaining color accuracy in photogrammetry for cultural heritage conservation has developed a process that successfully maintains the color integrity of models.

To accurately capture color, artists and restorers use calibration color maps, shoot in RAW format, and pre-process photographs in Adobe Camera RAW or other calibration programs before importing them into photogrammetric software. Multispectral imaging in ranges from ultraviolet to near-infrared expands the capabilities of painting analysis.

A 3D model under ultraviolet light reveals the UV-induced fluorescence throughout the sculpture or painting, revealing surface abrasions, organic dyes, and old protective coatings. An infrared 3D model allows for better definition of the details of the preparatory drawing.

Educational potential

Digital models of artworks created using photogrammetry open up new possibilities for art education and public access to cultural heritage. Interactive 3D representations demonstrate the value of a precise workflow that supports both conservation and educational goals. Technology facilitates innovation in heritage education and enhances aesthetic experiences through digital mediation.

Virtual museum displays with gigapixel visualization offer detailed interactive viewing, making art accessible to everyone. Viewers can immerse themselves in a work of art in a way impossible during a physical museum visit — zooming in on specific areas, exploring the artist’s technique, and discovering details hidden from the naked eye.

Augmented reality based on photogrammetric models creates new strategies for documentation, conservation, and monitoring. Experiments with image-based methodologies using inexpensive sensors, where 3D models become the foundation for augmented reality applications, expand the possibilities for interacting with art.

Interdisciplinary interaction

The application of photogrammetry to painting requires interdisciplinary dialogue between artists, restorers, curators, programmers, and computer vision researchers. The British Museum’s Egyptology Department is developing collaborations with artists to critically rethink the power and agency of collections, representation, and knowledge production.

Photogrammetric models of Mexican murals illustrate the intersection of technology and cultural heritage within the digital humanities. The creation of interactive 3D representations with contextual information opens new possibilities for future research at the intersection of disciplines.

Archaeologists, architects, spatial planners, and digital artists use photogrammetric tools in many fields. However, the democratization of technology leads to its use without critical understanding of the metric quality of the results. The growing gap between the dissemination of photogrammetric techniques and their use through appropriate educational processes must be bridged.

Ethical and legal aspects

The digitalization of artworks raises questions of copyright, authenticity, and adaptation to technology. Artists in the digital age face challenges protecting intellectual property when creating and distributing high-resolution digital copies of their works.

American artist Erin Hanson, a pioneer of open-ended impressionism, uses advanced 3D scanning and printing technologies to capture not only the color of oil paintings but also their texture, brushstrokes, and depth. Creating prints that look and feel like original works of art redefines the possibilities of reproduction.

The question of authenticity becomes especially pressing when digital technologies make it possible to create copies indistinguishable from the originals. The development of generative models has led to the creation of images that are almost indistinguishable from real photographs. Photorealistic images often depict human figures, especially celebrities and politicians, with a high degree of surrealism and aesthetic professionalism.

Future directions

Photogrammetry continues to evolve as a tool for artists and art researchers. The integration of artificial intelligence and machine learning into photogrammetric workflows promises further simplification and automation. Advances in computer technology are opening up new possibilities for artistic creation, as researchers, artists, and art enthusiasts discover new ways to create with digital tools.

Hybrid workflows combining traditional sculpting with photogrammetry or 3D scanning are becoming standard practice. Artists such as Sabina Howard and Juan Manuel Miñarro successfully hybridize traditional sculptural modeling processes with photogrammetry techniques to produce their works.

3D scanning frees creators to experiment with form, texture, and repetition without the limitations of traditional materials. A ceramicist can scan an original piece and create a lightweight resin replica for outdoor display. A performance artist can scan their own body to create wearable 3D-printed prosthetics, blurring the line between identity and design.

Photogrammetry is transforming creative workflows, opening the door to 3D printing, virtual exhibitions, and interactive installations. Artists are no longer limited to brushes, chisels, or mice — tools for digitalization, manipulation, and reimagining work are opening up new possibilities.