Mesopotamian cylinder seals Automatic translate

The cylinder seals of ancient Mesopotamia are among the most significant achievements in the field of artistic stone carving and administrative technology of antiquity. These small stone cylinders with carved images served as works of art, identification documents, and instruments of document circulation for more than three millennia.

Seals were widely used from the Sumerian period to the Persian era, exerting a significant influence on the development of writing, administrative systems and artistic traditions throughout the Middle East.

Historical roots and development of tradition

The appearance of cylinder seals dates back to the end of the fourth millennium BC and is associated with the development of urban civilization in Mesopotamia. The first examples were discovered in the ancient city of Uruk, the most important center of Sumerian culture. Archaeological evidence suggests that seals were initially used to keep track of goods, especially textiles and food, as part of the developing trading system.

The Sumerians created a unique design that allowed them to obtain long strips of images by rolling a cylinder on soft clay. This advantage over round stamp seals made it possible to create more complex and informative compositions. By 2700 BC, cuneiform inscriptions with the names and titles of the owners began to appear on the seals.

During the Akkadian period (2360–2180 BC), the practice of marking seals expanded to include the professional affiliation of the owner. The beginning of the second millennium BC was marked by the appearance of religious formulas, where the owner identified himself as a servant of a certain deity. By the middle of the second millennium, seals began to contain prayer texts, reflecting the growing role of religion in everyday life.

Manufacturing technologies and materials

Selection of materials

Master carvers used a wide range of natural materials to create seals. Soft stones such as soapstone, hematite, and serpentine were used to create simple pieces. More prestigious seals were made from hard minerals such as carnelian, chalcedony, agate, crystal, jasper, and amethyst.

A special place was occupied by lapis lazuli, which in Mesopotamia was considered the most prestigious material for seals of ordinary citizens. Royal seals were often created from semi-precious stones. In Ancient Egypt, cylindrical seals were also made of glass and faience.

The geographic origins of the materials were quite varied. Rock crystal was mined in the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, making it accessible to local craftsmen. Rose quartz was found in Mesopotamia itself, while amethyst had to be imported from Egypt, Turkey and Iran. Chalcedony, agate and carnelian came from India and Iran, and jasper was mined in the Zagros Mountains.

Processing technique

The process of making cylinder seals required high skill and specialized tools. The main principle of processing was the use of materials of a hardness no less than the stone being processed. Quartz in its various varieties was especially important for stone carving.

The technology included three main stages of processing. Initially, rough processing was done with a rotating grinding wheel. Then came drilling with a bow drill, where the "bow" moved back and forth, causing the drill to turn in different directions. The final processing included fine carving of the parts.

The craftsmen used chisels and abrasives, as the stones were harder than the metal tools of the time. Corundum powder or diamond dust with oil and water was used as an abrasive. Hematite powder with olive oil was used for the final polish. Work on one seal could take months or even years.

Artistic features and symbolism

Compositional solutions

The artistic design of the cylinder seals demonstrates the high level of skill of the ancient carvers. On the side surface of the cylinder were complex multi-figure compositions, which when rolled created expanded images. The dimensions of the seals were usually from 2 to 4 centimeters in length with a diameter of about 1 centimeter.

Early Sumerian seals from the beginning of the third millennium BC were distinguished by naively realistic images of animals and people. The compositions were characterized by ease and liveliness of movement, often including genre and mythological scenes. Gradually, the images became more static and conventional, sometimes turning into geometric patterns.

The Akkadian period brought a revival of realistic tendencies in glyptic. The images acquired volume, the compositions became freer and more dynamic. Assyrian seals of the first millennium BC continued the traditions of Akkad, distinguished by a variety of subjects and careful finishing.

Mythological motives

The images on the seals often included scenes from Mesopotamian mythology. Popular images were of alims, creatures with bull bodies and human faces, who later became the prototype of the winged shedu bulls of Akkadian mythology. Images of kusarikku, demons with bull legs who, according to mythology, were defeated by the god Marduk and later became one of the seven mythological sages, were also common.

Religious scenes included images of kings in triumphal poses, deities in prayerful gestures, and sacred trees of unusual shapes. Hunting and war scenes also occupied an important place in seal iconography, especially in the Assyrian period.

Functional purpose in society

Identity and signatures

Cylinder seals served as modern signatures and identification cards. Each seal contained a unique carving that served as a unique identifier for the owner. When concluding transactions, the seller, buyer, and witnesses "signed" with their seals on clay tablets. Sometimes transactions were certified by a local official who acted as a notary.

Seals were worn on a cord around the neck or on the belt thanks to a longitudinal axial hole. More expensive examples could have metal caps, including gold ones. The loss of a seal was a serious event: the owner sent messengers around the city, who notified about the invalidity of the lost seal.

After the owner’s death, the seal was usually placed in the grave along with other personal valuables. This emphasized the special significance of the seal as an integral attribute of a person’s personality.

Administrative control

Seals played a central role in the administrative management system. They were used to certify documents on the receipt of goods in temples and government institutions. Seals were rolled on clay tablets with records of the quantities of grain, oil and other products.

The protective function of seals was no less important. The doors of storage rooms were tied to the wall with a cord, onto which wet clay was applied and a seal was rolled. After drying, the clay firmly fixed the cord, and the safety of the seal imprint guaranteed the inviolability of supplies.

There were different types of seals: personal, institutional, and even seals of the gods. Initially, seals were used only by kings and nobles, but in the second millennium BC they spread to most aristocrats.

Evolution of stylistic directions

Regional schools

The development of cylinder seals was characterized by the formation of different regional styles. The Mesopotamian tradition spread to adjacent territories, where local craftsmen adapted the technology to their own artistic traditions.

Gems from Urartu (9th-7th centuries BC) and Achaemenid Persia (6th-5th centuries BC) show links with Mesopotamian traditions. At the same time, Egyptian seals were more often shaped like a sacred scarab beetle with hieroglyphic texts on the underside.

The seals of Crete were distinguished by the sharpness and freedom of composition, the dynamism of the images. Cretan glyptic influenced the development of the art of carving in Mycenaean Greece.

Technical innovations

Over time, the technique of making seals improved. The advent of special equipment that transferred rotation energy to the tool significantly expanded the expressive capabilities of carvers. Craftsmen were able to create shadows, convey halftones and achieve lifelike relief.

The use of different grain sizes of abrasive materials allowed for transitions in the quality of the processed surface. This technique conveyed the metallic shine of armor, the complex texture of the earth, and the naturalness of human skin.

Connection with the development of writing

From image to symbol

Recent research by Italian scientists has revealed a direct link between images on cylinder seals and the development of proto-cuneiform writing. Analysis of the Uruk seals has shown that the symbols on them gradually transformed into signs of early writing.

Images on seals from the mid-fourth millennium BC were used as part of an accounting system to control the production, storage, and transportation of goods. Over time, these symbols evolved into a proto-writing system.

The researchers found that recurring themes on the seals — patterns associated with the transport of textiles and pottery — appeared in proto-cuneiform. The “mesh vessel” image, indicating transport, later evolved into a sign for the same action in proto-cuneiform texts.

Transitional stage

Cylinder seals represent a transitional link between symbolic images and true writing. Many cuneiform signs originated from simplified images that had previously been used on seals. The sign for sheep was a stylized image of a ram, and the sign for grain resembled an image of a sack of grain.

This process of gradually transforming images into signs became the basis for the development of writing. Writing in Mesopotamia developed as a distributed system, where many people, from artisans to officials, contributed to the creation of a new way of transmitting information.

Regional distribution and influence

Geography of finds

Cylinder seals have been found across a vast area of ​​the ancient world. The main distribution regions include Mesopotamia (Sumerian, Akkadian and Babylonian periods), the Northern Caucasus (Maikop culture), Ancient Egypt, Crete (Minoan culture).

Seals have also been found in Anatolia, where they are attributed to the Hittite Empire, Mitanni, and Urartu. Seals associated with Elam and the Achaemenid Empire have been found in Iran. Even in Mesoamerica, similar items have been found.

The vast majority of seals come from Mesopotamia, which is due to the peculiarities of the local writing culture. Raw clay, used as a writing material, was ideally suited for the use of cylinder seals.

Cultural contacts

Seal finds testify to the broad cultural ties of the ancient world. A cylinder seal from Azerbaijan demonstrates contacts between the local population and the cultural centers of the Middle East in the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age.

Similarities between seals from different regions indicate the existence of trade and diplomatic links between distant territories. Seals from Hasanlu, Nimrud, Ashur, Alalakh show the spread of common artistic motifs and technologies.

Archaeological research and findings

The scale of discoveries

Archaeological research has yielded a wealth of material for studying cylinder seals. About 15,000 seals have been found in burials, indicating their widespread use. These finds have proven extremely useful for studying the art, economy, social structure, and religion of Mesopotamia.

The seals are well preserved due to the stone material and contain unique scenes from religious rites. The study of images on seals is carried out by a special science - sphragistics.

Modern research methods

Modern research into the strength of 3D printed ship hull components shows interest in ancient technologies. Cylindrical samples of various materials are tested for compression to determine the optimal parameters. When filling increases from 20% to 100%, the strength of ABS plastic increases by 366%, and PETG plastic by 79%.

A metallographic microscope with a visualization system shows that deformations of more than 10% are accompanied by the formation of cracks in the sintering zone of the layers in 90% of cases. These studies help to better understand the technological processes of antiquity.

Social stratification and seals

Hierarchy of Owners

The spread of cylinder seals reflected the social structure of Mesopotamian society. Initially, seals were used exclusively by kings and the highest nobility. Gradually, their use expanded to the middle classes, indicating the development of trade and the complexity of the administrative system.

The material used to make seals often indicated the social status of the owner. Ordinary citizens were content with seals made of soft stones, while the aristocracy ordered items made of prestigious materials. Royal seals were made of the most expensive semi-precious stones.

Professional affiliation

The inscriptions on the seals contained information about the professional activity of the owner. In the Akkadian period, it became obligatory to indicate the profession, which reflected the specialization of society. The seals of artisans, traders, scribes and officials had characteristic design features.

The existence of seals of the gods indicates a developed religious hierarchy. Temple seals were used to certify religious documents and control temple property.

Technological aspects of use

Impression technique

The process of creating the impression required certain skills. The seal was rolled on wet clay, creating a continuous strip of the image. The quality of the impression depended on the consistency of the clay, the force of pressure and the speed of the seal.

Cylinder seal impressions have been found on a variety of surfaces. In addition to clay tablets, seals were used on clothing, amulets, and various writing materials. Seals were often rolled onto pieces of clay that sealed doors and vessels.

Storage and use

The ways of wearing seals varied. A longitudinal hole allowed the seal to be hung on a cord around the neck or wrist. Some seals had metal frames or caps, turning them into jewelry.

Seals served not only practical but also magical purposes. They functioned as amulets that protected the owner from evil forces. Religious images on seals enhanced their protective function.

Influence on world culture

Heritage of Traditions

Mesopotamian cylinder seals had a lasting influence on the development of glyptics in other regions. The tradition of stone carving spread to the Mediterranean, where it was further developed. Greek and Roman gems inherited many of the techniques of Mesopotamian craftsmen.

The principles of using seals to certify documents formed the basis of modern authentication systems. The idea of ​​a unique identifier, embedded in cylindrical seals, was embodied in modern security technologies.

Modern study

Cylinder seals remain an important source for the study of ancient history. They provide unique information about the daily life, religious beliefs, trade relations and artistic traditions of ancient civilizations.

The interdisciplinary approach to studying seals includes archaeology, art history, linguistics and computer modeling. Modern technologies allow us to create exact copies of seals and analyze the smallest details of the images.