Agroecology Automatic translate

Agroecology integrates ecological principles with agricultural production methods. This approach seeks to create agricultural systems that mimic natural ecosystems, taking advantage of their resilience and diversity.

Agroecology is seen as an alternative to traditional farming, a holistic system that harmoniously combines ecology and agriculture. Agroecology is based on the application of ecological principles to agriculture. It aims to optimize the management of food and agricultural systems, focusing on the interactions between plants, animals and people, giving priority to a fair food system.

Agroecology is also defined as a scientific discipline, a set of practices, and a social movement. As a social movement, it emphasizes the importance of ecological principles, local knowledge, culture, and traditions to improve the sustainability and equity of the food system. Agroecological practices have demonstrated positive results in food security and nutrition, especially in low- and middle-income countries. The approach is also seen as a means to transform the food system as a whole.

Principles of Agroecology

Agroecology is based on ecological principles integrated into agricultural activities. Particular attention is paid to increasing biodiversity in agroecosystems, which is a key practice. Improving soil health and fertility is another important aspect, achieved, for example, by increasing soil organic matter and stimulating microbial activity. Agroecology aims to use resources efficiently and reduce dependence on external non-renewable resources or toxic substances.

Resilience to and adaptation to climate change are important goals of agroecological systems. This is achieved through practices that enhance crop stability and biodiversity conservation. Landscape complexity, including hedgerows, intercropping, and the integration of animals, forests, and wetlands, contributes to multiple benefits such as biodiversity conservation and climate change adaptation. Integrating scientific knowledge with local and traditional farmer knowledge is also an important principle.

Socioeconomic aspects are central. Agroecology aims to create more equitable food systems, empower smallholder farmers and increase their autonomy. This includes improving farmers’ well-being and supporting community cooperation. Agroecology is often contrasted with technocratic approaches to agriculture that focus on the commoditization of food, and addresses structural problems such as dependence on external resources, crop and livestock specialization, agrarian class conflicts and gender inequality.

Biodiversity as a basis

Maintaining and enhancing biodiversity at all levels of system organization and functioning, from genes to landscapes, is a cornerstone of agroecology. It is essential for better management of agricultural production systems and their sustainability. Increasing biodiversity in farming systems is positively associated with improved dietary diversity, food security, and nutrition for small-scale food producers and rural communities. Agroecological practices aim to protect, restore, and promote biodiversity to create more resilient and sustainable agri-food systems.

Achieving these goals requires a deep understanding of the ecology of species and their functions in ecosystems, particularly at larger spatial and temporal scales and in understudied agricultural systems and geographic regions. Research focuses on how landscape-level processes regulate biodiversity patterns and ecosystem functioning.

Soil health

Soil health is of primary importance in agroecological systems. Practices aim to improve soil structure, increase organic matter content, and promote biological activity. Healthy soils improve water retention, provide nutrients to plants, and increase their resistance to diseases and pests. A systematic review found strong evidence that agroecological practices are effective in adapting to climate change, using key indicators such as soil organic carbon and soil microbial activity.

For example, the Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF) movement in India, which promotes agroecological practices, has shown that this approach can reduce soil degradation and improve crop yields for low-input farmers. Maintaining and restoring strategic fractions of soil organic matter is an important objective for a variety of farming systems.

Efficient use of resources

Agroecology aims to optimize the use of local resources and minimize dependence on external synthetic inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides. This is achieved by utilizing natural processes and interactions within the agroecosystem. For example, legumes can be used to fix nitrogen in the soil, reducing the need for nitrogen fertilizers. Biological pest control helps reduce the use of chemical pesticides. This strategy reduces production costs and reduces negative environmental impacts.

Resilience and adaptation to climate change

Agroecological systems are designed to be more resilient to climate stresses such as droughts, floods and extreme temperatures. Crop and variety diversity, agroforestry and improved soil health help to increase this resilience. For example, agroforestry systems can provide food, livelihoods and ecosystem services, including carbon sequestration. These systems show greater stability in yields compared to monoculture systems.

Knowledge Integration

Agroecology values ​​and integrates different types of knowledge. This includes scientific research in ecology, agronomy and social sciences, as well as the practical knowledge and experience of farmers, including traditional agricultural practices. This approach enables the development of solutions that are ecologically sound, economically viable and socially acceptable. Farmers’ participation in the research process and decision-making strengthens their role in the food system.

Practical methods of agroecology

Agroecology is implemented through a wide range of specific methods and approaches that are applied at the field, farm, and even entire agroecosystem levels. These practices aim to create self-sustaining and productive systems that are in harmony with the environment.

Polycultures and mixed plantings

Growing several types of crops in the same field at the same time or in close succession is a common agroecological practice. This method, known as polyculture or mixed planting, mimics the diversity of natural ecosystems. Plants in mixed plantings can complement each other: for example, some can repel pests from others, improve soil structure, or provide shade. This approach increases overall productivity, increases resistance to pests and diseases, and makes efficient use of available resources such as light, water, and nutrients. Complex mixtures of plants with different planting patterns differ from the monoculture approach of traditional agriculture.

Agroforestry

Agroforestry is a land management system that purposefully integrates trees and shrubs with crops and/or livestock in the same area. Trees can provide many benefits, including improving microclimate, protecting soil from erosion, increasing soil fertility through leaf litter and nitrogen fixation (for some tree species), and providing additional products such as fruits, nuts, timber, or livestock feed. Agroforestry systems promote biodiversity and carbon sequestration in soil and biomass.

Integration of crop and livestock production

Combining crop production and livestock production on the same farm is another important agroecological practice. In such integrated systems, waste from one component can serve as a resource for the other. For example, animal manure is used as organic fertilizer for fields, while crop residues or specially grown forage crops are fed to livestock. Such integration helps close nutrient cycles, reduces the need for external fertilizers and feed, and can improve the overall economic efficiency of the farm. Agroecological principles can be applied to the design of sustainable livestock production systems aimed at increasing diversity within livestock production.

Cover crops and green manure

Growing cover crops — plants that are planted not to harvest but to protect and improve the soil — is an important agroecological practice. Cover crops prevent soil erosion, suppress weeds, improve soil structure, and can store nutrients. Some cover crops, known as green manures (such as legumes), can fix atmospheric nitrogen, making the soil richer for subsequent crops. After completing their growth cycle, cover crops are typically plowed into the soil or left on the surface as mulch.

Composting and organic fertilizers

Instead of synthetic mineral fertilizers, agroecology favors the use of organic fertilizers such as compost, manure, and crop residues. Composting is the controlled decomposition of organic materials, resulting in a nutrient-rich fertilizer that improves soil structure and its ability to retain moisture. The use of organic fertilizers helps maintain and increase the organic matter content of the soil, which is the basis for its fertility and health.

Biological control of pests and diseases

Agroecology aims to manage pest and disease populations using natural control mechanisms rather than synthetic pesticides. This includes creating conditions favourable to natural enemies of pests (e.g. predatory insects and birds), using resistant crop varieties, crop rotation and other cultural practices. Understanding the interactions between different species in an agroecosystem helps to develop effective biological control strategies.

Preservation and use of local varieties and breeds

Local plant varieties and animal breeds are often well adapted to specific environmental conditions and may be resistant to local pests and diseases. Agroecology supports the conservation and use of this genetic diversity, as it is an important resource for the sustainability and adaptability of agricultural systems. Working with local genetic resources also helps to preserve cultural heritage and knowledge associated with agriculture.

Water Resources Management

Efficient use and conservation of water are integral to agroecological practices. This may include rainwater harvesting and storage techniques, drip irrigation, improving soil water retention capacity by increasing organic matter, and using cover crops. Wise water management is especially important in drought-prone regions or where water is limited. Research is exploring how plant diversity influences water cycles.

Scaling up agroecology

The shift to agroecological approaches requires looking beyond the farm level to the entire food system. Scaling up agroecology involves several aspects. One is what is called horizontal diffusion, where more and more farms and families start practicing agroecology over larger areas. It also involves more people in the processing, distribution, and consumption of agroecologically produced food.

Advancing agroecological practices beyond individual farms can be done through a bottom-up approach, starting with model agroecological farms (‘beacons’) that then form networks of farms to strengthen the implementation of agroecology at the landscape level. Creating agricultural landscapes of fields and farms that follow agroecological management requires an understanding of biodiversity patterns, biological interactions, and the mechanisms that determine and enhance ecosystem functioning to improve services at the landscape level.

However, scaling up agroecology faces certain challenges. There are problems with the distribution of funding, and the mismatch of agroecology with some technological innovations may slow its spread. In addition, agricultural diversification must go beyond organic farming and penetrate into conventional agriculture. It is important to raise awareness among stakeholders that agroecology does not necessarily conflict with agricultural technologies.

Agroecology at different farm scales

Agroecological principles and practices are applicable to both small and large farms, although approaches and emphases may differ.

For smallholder farmers, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, agroecology offers ways to improve food security, nutrition, and income while reducing dependence on expensive external inputs. Many agroecological practices, such as mixed cropping, agroforestry, and crop-livestock integration, are well suited to smallholder farming conditions and can build on local knowledge and traditions. Agroecology also promotes the empowerment of smallholder farmers by increasing their autonomy and participation in decision-making. Research shows that agroecological farming can improve the well-being of smallholder farmers.

Applying agroecology to large-scale farming is more challenging and requires specific research and development. Although most successful examples of agroecology have been implemented on small family farms, which occupy only about 30% of the world’s agricultural land, the expansion of agroecology to large-scale farms is urgently needed. This requires addressing specific research, technology, and policy issues to support sustainable transformation. Large-scale farmers can use agroecological principles to combine input and process improvements in their systems, leveraging ecosystem services to increase incomes and reduce costs.

Effects and benefits of agroecology

The application of agroecological approaches brings many positive effects, covering both environmental and socio-economic aspects. These benefits contribute to more sustainable and equitable food systems.

Environmental benefits

One of the most significant results of implementing agroecology is the conservation and restoration of biodiversity. By creating more diverse and complex agroecosystems that mimic natural environments, agroecology helps increase the number and species diversity of beneficial insects, soil microorganisms, birds, and other wildlife. This, in turn, improves natural processes such as pollination and biological pest control.

Agroecological practices such as the use of organic fertilizers, cover crops, and minimum tillage lead to significant improvements in soil health. Organic matter content increases, soil structure improves, and the ability to retain moisture and nutrients improves, while soil biota is activated. This not only increases fertility, but also reduces erosion and land degradation.

In addition, agroecological systems have the potential to sequester carbon in soil and biomass, especially agroforestry systems and practices that increase soil organic matter. This helps mitigate climate change. Reducing the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides reduces pollution of water sources and improves water quality.

Socio-economic benefits

Agroecology makes a significant contribution to improving food security and nutrition, especially for vulnerable groups. Diversifying agricultural production at the farm level provides more varied and nutritious diets for farm families and local communities. Reducing reliance on expensive purchased inputs such as seeds, fertilizers, and pesticides can lead to increased incomes and greater economic resilience for farmers.

Agroecological approaches often contribute to improving the overall well-being of farmers, including not only economic indicators but also aspects such as autonomy in decision-making, preservation of traditional knowledge and strengthening of social ties in communities. Creating more equitable food systems is one of the goals of agroecology, which is achieved through supporting small-scale producers, developing local markets and reducing long and complex supply chains. Preserving and actively using local knowledge and cultural traditions in agriculture is also an important social effect.

Multifunctionality of agroecosystems

Agroecosystems managed according to the principles of agroecology are characterized by high multifunctionality. This means that they are capable of simultaneously providing a wide range of services, not just food production. In addition to agricultural production, such systems contribute to biodiversity conservation, water flow regulation, soil quality improvement, carbon sequestration, and cultural and recreational values. Systematic and quantitative assessment of the multifunctionality of agroecosystems, including ecological services, is an important task for the design of sustainable farming systems.

Agroecological transitions

The transition from conventional farming methods to agroecological systems is a complex, multi-layered process that requires changes not only in practices but also in thinking, social structures, and policies. This process is often referred to as the agroecological transition.

The concept of agroecological transition involves gradual or radical changes in agricultural systems toward greater ecological integrity and social equity. Stephen Glissman, one of the pioneers of agroecology, proposed a model of several levels of transition. The first levels may involve simple substitutions, such as replacing synthetic pesticides with biological analogues or switching to organic fertilizers. However, these initial steps aimed at increasing efficiency and replacing harmful inputs are unlikely to lead to fundamental changes on their own.

Glissman’s third level represents a qualitative leap: instead of making minor adjustments to the existing farming system, it involves redesigning the entire food and fiber production system based on ecological principles and natural processes. At this level, a variety of agroecological practices (such as mixed cropping, composting, integrated farming) are reflexively adopted to facilitate the development of an intentional agroecological system. Higher levels of transition involve changes at the level of the entire food system, including redesigning the links between producers and consumers, creating new market mechanisms, and developing more equitable and sustainable food networks.

Successful agroecological transitions often rely on collaborative research and development, in which farmers, scientists and other stakeholders work together (known as participatory action research, or PAR, methods). This approach enables agroecological principles to be adapted to local conditions and promotes wider adoption of innovations.

There are various factors that can facilitate or hinder agroecological transitions. Political, commercial, and even cultural factors can act as barriers. For example, existing subsidies that support conventional agriculture or the dominance of large agribusiness companies in the seed and fertilizer market can hinder the transition. On the other hand, growing consumer demand for organic products, support from social movements, and targeted government policies can stimulate these changes.

Innovation and technology also play a role in agroecological transitions. It is important to understand that agroecology does not necessarily reject technology, but seeks to integrate it in ways that are consistent with ecological principles and social goals. These may be traditional or modern technologies aimed at improving resource management, monitoring the health of agroecosystems, or facilitating knowledge sharing between farmers.

Agroecology and global challenges

Agroecology offers meaningful solutions to some of the most pressing global challenges of our time, including climate change, biodiversity loss and food security.

Climate change

Agroecological approaches make a dual contribution to combating climate change: they help both adapt agriculture to changes already underway and mitigate their impacts. Increasing the resilience of agroecosystems through crop diversification, improved soil health, and efficient water management helps farmers cope with extreme weather events such as droughts and floods. At the same time, practices that increase soil organic matter and use agroforestry help sequester atmospheric carbon, thereby reducing greenhouse gas emissions from the agricultural sector.

Loss of Biodiversity

Modern intensive agriculture is one of the main causes of biodiversity loss worldwide. Agroecology offers an alternative by actively promoting the conservation and restoration of species and ecosystem diversity at both farm and landscape levels. Creating mosaic landscapes with natural and semi-natural habitats, using polycultures, and preserving local animal varieties and breeds all contribute to maintaining rich biodiversity, which in turn provides important ecosystem services.

Food Security and Nutrition

Agroecology plays an important role in achieving sustainable food security and improving nutrition, especially for the most vulnerable in developing countries. By diversifying production and relying on local resources, agroecological systems can increase the availability of a variety of foods locally. This improves diets and reduces dependence on external food supplies. Improved soil health and reduced use of chemicals also contribute to the production of healthier, more nutritious food.

Sustainable development

The principles of agroecology are closely linked to the Sustainable Development Goals formulated by the United Nations. Agroecology promotes economically viable, socially equitable and environmentally sound food systems. It aims to improve the well-being of farmers, preserve natural resources for future generations and build more resilient rural communities. The implementation of agroecology is a critical element in the global transformation of food systems to achieve sustainability and address the challenges of climate change and biodiversity loss.

Prospects and directions of research in agroecology

For the further development and widespread implementation of agroecology, targeted research is needed in a number of key areas. This research should cover both fundamental ecological and agronomic issues and the socio-economic aspects of the transition to sustainable food systems.

Developing new data, models and knowledge

There is a need to improve data collection on agricultural systems, develop more accurate models of their functioning, and generate new knowledge that can be used to make informed decisions. This includes both improved methods for monitoring agroecosystems and the development of decision support tools for farmers and policymakers. New open data initiatives show promise for addressing the information availability challenge.

Selection for diversity

One important area is the breeding of plants and animals adapted to agroecological systems characterized by greater diversity and lower reliance on external inputs. Instead of focusing solely on yield, breeding programs should consider such traits as resistance to diseases and pests, nutrient use efficiency, adaptation to local climate conditions, and the ability to grow well in mixed plantings. It is necessary to investigate whether it is possible to improve not only yields but also ecosystem services through breeding.

Scalable complexity

Agroecological systems are often more complex than conventional monoculture systems. Research should aim to develop methods for managing this complexity in a way that can be applied at different scales, from small farms to large agribusinesses. This includes studying optimal crop combinations, the spatial arrangement of agroecosystem elements, and methods for integrating different components (e.g. crops, livestock, and forestry).

Cycle management beyond fields and farms

Agroecology considers agricultural systems in the broader context of landscapes and even entire watersheds. Research must therefore go beyond individual fields and farms to examine how to manage nutrient, water and energy flows at larger spatial scales. This includes the conservation and restoration of natural and semi-natural habitats in agricultural landscapes and their role in maintaining ecosystem services.

Sharing of cultivated space

Research should focus on optimising the use of agricultural land so that it simultaneously supports food production, biodiversity conservation and other ecosystem services. This requires developing innovative approaches to land use planning that take into account the needs of different stakeholders and promote the creation of multifunctional agricultural landscapes.

Co-innovation with farmers, value chains and policymakers

A successful transition to agroecology requires close collaboration between different actors in the food system. Research should be designed to involve farmers, processors, retailers, consumers and policy makers in the co-creation and implementation of innovations. The effectiveness of different approaches to training and skills development for implementing agroecology also requires study.

Agroecology and alternative protein sources

Agroecological principles can be applied to analyse the suitability of different alternative protein sources, particularly in the context of low- and middle-income countries. This includes assessing how the production and consumption of such proteins can be integrated into sustainable and equitable food systems that build on local resources and traditions.

Agroecology and medicinal plants

The application of agroecological principles to the cultivation of medicinal plants is a promising direction. Understanding the ecological conditions in which wild medicinal plants grow naturally can help in developing agricultural strategies that ensure high-quality raw materials. Agriculture based on ecological principles can harmonize the growth of plants in their ecosystems, which is especially important for species that are harvested in large quantities.

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Research questions

There are many agronomic and environmental issues that require further study:

How do aboveground and belowground species interact to provide multiple ecosystem services?

Above- and below-ground species interact to provide ecosystem services through complex processes. Soil organisms such as bacteria and fungi play key roles in nutrient cycling, regulating soil organic matter dynamics, sequestering carbon, and modifying the physical structure and water regimes of the soil. These below-ground processes directly influence above-ground species, for example by improving plant nutrient uptake and health. In turn, above-ground vegetation influences soil organisms through root exudates and organic residues. These interactions support the functioning of natural ecosystems and are an important resource for the sustainable management of agricultural systems. Both synergistic and negative side effects of these interactions are considered.

How many supporting and regulating species are needed and which ones?

The exact number of supporting and regulating species required by an ecosystem is not known, but their diversity is important for stability. Keystone species such as sea otters or gray wolves have a disproportionately large impact on an ecosystem by regulating species diversity and maintaining balance. Regulating services include climate and disease control, pollination, biological pest control, and water purification. For example, pollinators (insects, birds, bats) are important for 35% of global crop production. Supporting services such as soil formation, nutrient cycling, and photosynthesis are the basis for all other ecosystem services. Biodiversity includes pollinators and species that help control pests.

Under what circumstances does biodiversity improve crop yields, product quality and sustainability?

Biodiversity improves crop yields, product quality, and stability through several mechanisms. Increased pollinator numbers directly impact crop yields for many crops. The presence of wild species that control pests (biocontrol) reduces crop losses. Improved soil quality through a variety of soil organisms improves plant nutrition, and therefore increases crop yields and product quality. Biodiversity also increases the resilience of agricultural production to negative external influences and facilitates adaptation to climate change, which ensures stability of indicators.

To what extent can ecosystem services substitute, complement or synergize with agricultural resources to achieve sustainable and productive agriculture?

Ecosystem services play a significant role in sustainable and productive agriculture, interacting with agricultural resources. Agroecosystems depend on natural ecosystem services such as pollination, biological pest control, maintenance of soil structure and fertility, nutrient cycling, and hydrological services. These natural processes can complement or even replace some anthropogenic inputs, such as chemical fertilizers or pesticides, reducing costs and environmental risks. Agroecosystems themselves also provide services, including regulation of soil and water quality, carbon sequestration, and maintenance of biodiversity, which contribute to synergies. Estimating the value of these services reveals their enormous, often underestimated, importance to agriculture.

What is the impact of reduced food supply on beneficial organisms due to herbicide use?

The use of herbicides reduces food resources for beneficial organisms, which has a negative impact on ecosystems. Chemical destruction of plant species whose seeds serve as the main food for birds is a major negative factor for bird populations. As a result of the reduction of food sources, wild animals may be forced to move, change their diet, or starve. Herbicides also suppress soil microflora that participates in soil formation and nitrogen fixation, which can lead to long-term negative consequences for soil fertility. Thus, the reduction of the food supply due to herbicides disrupts natural mechanisms and food chains.

What are the effects on pests and beneficial arthropods of long-term exposure to sublethal concentrations of various agrochemicals?

Long-term exposure to sublethal concentrations of agrochemicals can cause physiological and behavioral changes in organisms, including arthropods. Although direct studies of the effects on arthropods are missing from the presented results, similar effects can be expected based on the effects on fish. For example, in fish, repeated exposure to sublethal doses of pesticides can result in nest and brood abandonment, decreased immunity to diseases, and reduced ability to evade predators. This suggests that even non-lethal doses of agrochemicals can negatively affect populations of both harmful and beneficial arthropods by disrupting their reproductive cycles, disease resistance, and behavior, which indirectly affects the balance of the agroecosystem.

What area of ​​natural or semi-natural habitat is needed within a farm or landscape, and how should these areas be distributed?

The number of species an ecosystem can support depends on its area: the larger the area, the more species. However, this relationship is not straightforward; for example, doubling the area may increase the number of species by only 23% under certain conditions. Reducing the area of ​​an ecosystem does not result in a smaller copy, but in a new ecosystem with significantly fewer species. Ten small wilderness areas can support only half the species that would live in a single area of ​​equal total area. Organic farms, for example, create or maintain a variety of habitats, such as black fallows, fallow lands, and ponds, which provide refuge and resources for a variety of species. Specific figures for the area needed and the optimal distribution are not given, but the importance of maintaining sufficiently large and interconnected areas is implied.

What variables should be measured to assess habitat quality?

To assess habitat quality, a range of variables reflecting the health and functioning of the ecosystem should be measured. This includes analysis of climate conditions, topography, soil characteristics, vegetation conditions and hydrological regimes. Soil health is important to assess as it promotes greater diversity of soil organisms, which are critical for nutrient cycling and plant health. Landscape diversity, such as through crop rotations and alternating crops, is also an indicator of quality as it provides food and shelter for a wide range of wildlife. Water conservation and protection of aquatic ecosystems are also important aspects.

How much soil organic matter is needed in different farming systems, and which fractions are strategic for protection or restoration?

The specific optimum amount of soil organic matter (OM) varies with soil type and cropping system, but maintaining and increasing it is critical. For example, in a long-term trial at Rothamsted Experimental Station, the OM content in the treatment with annual manure application was 6.16%, compared with 1.74% in the treatment with mineral fertiliser (NPK). Higher OM content increased maximum barley yields by over 2.5 t/ha, particularly for varieties with high yield potential, and reduced responsiveness to nitrogen fertiliser. OM improves soil structure, enhancing the ability of roots to spread and take up nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus. Although strategic fractions are not detailed, the overall aim is to maintain and increase OM content, which is difficult without significant organic fertiliser application.

Can DNA-based soil biodiversity identification methods be used as decision support indicators in soil management?

Yes, DNA-based soil biodiversity identification methods, in particular nanopore DNA sequencing, can be used to rapidly identify microbial species, including bacterial and viral ones. This technology enables metagenomic analysis of soils, characterizing bacterial strains and identifying genetic mutations, such as those associated with antibiotic resistance. The advantages of this approach include its low complexity, reduced cost, and the possibility of real-time analysis. These methods therefore provide valuable information on the composition of the soil microbiome, which can serve as an indicator of soil health and support informed decision-making in soil management.

How does plant diversity affect water cycles?

Plant diversity influences water cycles through several mechanisms. Soil organisms, whose diversity and activity are related to plant diversity, regulate soil water regimes. Plants, including trees and other vegetation, are involved in maintaining water balance. Different plant species have different root systems, penetration depths, and water requirements, which influence infiltration, soil moisture retention, and transpiration. Diverse vegetation can reduce runoff, improve water infiltration, and use available water more efficiently, which is important for regulating the hydrological regime of areas.

What combination of annual and perennial crops is needed?

A combination of annuals and perennials is often the best option for creating sustainable and diverse agricultural landscapes or garden plots. Perennials can serve as the basis of the composition, especially for long-term plantings, while annuals can fill gaps, add bright accents and allow the appearance of the site to be changed annually. Low perennial shrubs are better suited for large borders, and annuals are better for small ones. In the design of recreation areas, perennial vines create a long-term structure, and climbing annuals quickly provide a decorative effect. There is no universally “necessary” combination, the choice depends on specific goals: from landscape design to agroecological tasks, where perennials can contribute to soil improvement and biodiversity in the long term, and annuals provide flexibility in crop rotations.

How can local practices complement or synergize when integrated into landscape design?

Local practices, especially the use of native plants, play an important role in achieving ecological sustainability in landscape design. Native plants are well adapted to the climate and soil conditions of a particular region. This ensures their higher survival rate and reduces the need for maintenance, such as watering or fertilizing. Integrating native species into landscape design helps to preserve local biodiversity by creating habitats for native species of animals and insects. In this way, local practices interact synergistically with the goals of ecological landscape design aimed at creating functional, aesthetic and sustainable spaces that conserve natural resources.

What is the potential productivity limit of agro-ecological livestock systems at different levels of external input use?

Agroecological livestock systems have significant potential for sustainable production and to contribute to addressing environmental challenges such as climate change and biodiversity conservation. The productivity of these systems depends on the level of external inputs used and the management practices applied. Wider adoption of existing best practices and technologies in feeding, veterinary, animal husbandry and manure management could reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 30%. Systems managed sustainably can promote nutrient cycling, carbon sequestration and the conservation of agricultural landscapes. Although there is no specific “productivity limit”, the emphasis is on increasing efficiency and sustainability while reducing dependence on external inputs and minimizing negative environmental impacts.

How can ecosystem services and other externalities of farming systems be effectively taken into account in decision making?

To effectively take ecosystem services (ES) and externalities of farming systems into account in decision-making, a step-by-step approach can be used. This approach helps to identify and integrate ES into plans, programs, and specific decisions. The first step involves setting goals and designing a process. The second step focuses on prioritizing the most significant ES (e.g. 3-6 services) that represent risks or opportunities for the development plan and identifying the beneficiaries of these services. Research is intensifying in the area of ​​ES assessment and management to minimize environmental impacts, although the balance between human activities and ecosystem integrity remains a complex issue.

How can we best quantify trade-offs between economic viability, biodiversity conservation and ecosystem service provision in agricultural landscapes?

Quantifying trade-offs between economic viability, biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services requires complex analyses. Researchers assess such trade-offs, for example, by analysing the impact of different agricultural production strategies (intensification or land expansion) on biodiversity and markets. It is important to consider that agricultural ecosystems provide not only food but also other services, such as regulation of soil and water quality, and depend on the services of natural ecosystems. Assessing these interrelations and potential trade-offs or synergies helps to make more informed decisions. Although no specific universal method for quantification is provided, the need for research to better understand and manage these complex interactions is highlighted.