Musical culture of Ancient Greece and Rome Automatic translate

Music was central to the lives of the ancient Greeks and Romans. It permeated all aspects of society, from religious rituals and theatrical performances to education and private entertainment. The theoretical research of the Greeks laid the foundations of European musical science, and the Romans, having adopted and adapted the Greek heritage, gave musical practice new scope and spectacle. Studying the musical theories and practices of these civilizations reveals to us deep aspects of their culture and worldview.

Music in Ancient Greece

For the Hellenes, music was not just entertainment, but the most important element of culture and education. They believed in its divine origin and ability to influence the soul of a person, to shape his character. Music accompanied the Greek throughout his life.

The Role of Music in Greek Society

Music was played during religious ceremonies, praising the gods. Hymns performed by choirs accompanied by a lyre or cithara were an integral part of celebrations such as the Panathenaia or Dionysia. Music played a major role in the theatre. Tragedies and comedies included choral parts that commented on what was happening on stage, expressed emotions and created a special atmosphere. The melody and rhythm of the actors’ speech were also musically organised.

The education of a noble youth was unthinkable without music training. It was believed that it developed harmony of soul and body, and fostered moderation and courage. Plato and Aristotle paid great attention to the musical education of citizens in their works. At symposia — friendly feasts — music created a relaxed atmosphere, promoting conversation and fun. Participants often performed songs themselves, accompanying themselves on the lyre. Music was even used in military affairs: trumpet signals inspired warriors and coordinated their actions.

Greek Music Theory

Ancient Greek thinkers were the first to attempt to comprehend music from a scientific point of view. Their theoretical developments had a huge influence on the subsequent development of European musical thought. The Pythagoreans occupy a special place.

Pythagorean School and Mathematical Foundations

Pythagoras and his followers believed that music, like the entire universe, was based on numerical relationships. They experimentally established that the basic consonant intervals — the octave, fifth, and fourth — were formed by the vibration of strings whose lengths were related as simple whole numbers (1:2 for an octave, 2:3 for a fifth, 3:4 for a fourth). For their experiments, they used a monochord — a one-string instrument with a movable bridge. These discoveries established the idea of ​​music as an exact science closely connected with mathematics and astronomy (the concept of the "harmony of the spheres"). The Pythagoreans distinguished between consonance — a harmonious combination of tones, and dissonance — a disagreeable one. Their teaching laid the foundations for the theory of musical intervals.

Aristoxenus and the empirical approach

Aristotle’s student, Aristoxenus of Tarentum, proposed a different approach to studying music. Unlike the Pythagoreans, he considered auditory perception, rather than mathematical calculations, to be the main criterion in music. Aristoxenus claimed that intervals should be assessed by ear, rather than by measuring the lengths of strings. He developed a doctrine of the genera of melos, the main types of scales. The Greeks distinguished three genera: diatonic (based on the alternation of whole tones and semitones, familiar to the modern ear), chromatic (with an increased number of semitones), and enharmonic (using microintervals - quarter tones). Each genera had its own characteristic sound appearance and emotional coloring.

Ladas and their ethos

The central concept of Greek musical theory was the modes, or "harmonies" (harmoniai). A mode was a certain sequence of intervals within an octave, forming a scale with its own unique melodic and expressive character. The most famous were the Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixolydian and other modes. Each mode was attributed a certain "ethos" - the ability to evoke certain emotions and influence a person’s moral character. For example, the Dorian mode was considered courageous and serious, the Phrygian - excited and passionate, and the Lydian - plaintive or relaxing. Philosophers attached great importance to the choice of modes in education and social life.

Notation system

The Greeks used letter notation to record music. There were two systems: one for vocal music, the other for instrumental music. The pitch of the sound was indicated by letters of the Greek alphabet, and the rhythm by special signs above them. Unfortunately, very few examples of ancient Greek music have survived to this day. Among the best known are the "Epitaph of Seikilos" (a short song carved on a tombstone), fragments from the tragedies of Euripides, and hymns to Apollo. These few surviving monuments give only a vague idea of ​​the real sound of ancient music.

Musical instruments of Ancient Greece

The ancient Greeks had a wide range of instruments. They were divided into string, brass and percussion instruments. Each type was used in specific situations and to create a particular mood.

String instruments

The symbol of Greek music was the lyre. This plucked instrument with a resonator made of a tortoise shell and several strings (usually 7) was associated with the cult of Apollo. The lyre was considered an instrument that ennobled the soul and was widely used to accompany singing and for educational purposes. More complex and powerful in sound was the kithara. It had a wooden body, more strings and was used by professional musicians in competitions and public performances. Forminga is the oldest stringed instrument, the predecessor of the lyre and kithara, mentioned by Homer. There were also various types of harps, such as the trigonon (corner harp) and pectis.

Wind instruments

The most common wind instrument was the aulos. This was a reed instrument, usually played in pairs (the performer played two aulos at the same time). The aulos was associated with the cult of Dionysus and was used in ecstatic rituals, theatrical performances and feasts. Its sound was considered exciting and passionate. The syrinx, or Pan flute, was a multi-barreled flute consisting of several reed tubes of different lengths fastened together. It had a pastoral character. For military and ceremonial purposes, the salpinga was used - a straight bronze pipe with a sharp, loud sound.

Percussion instruments

Percussion instruments in Greece were used primarily to set the rhythm in dances, processions, and cult ceremonies. These included cymbals (small metal cymbals), crotala (wooden rattles or castanets), and tympanum (a large tambourine or frame drum, especially popular in Dionysian cults). Percussion instruments were not as important as strings or brass instruments, but they complemented the overall sound of ensembles.

Performing practice

Musical performance in ancient Greece was varied. It included solo and choral singing, instrumental music, and mixed forms. Singing could be monophonic (monodic) or possibly with elements of heterophony, when several performers varied the same melody. Instrumental accompaniment was closely related to the vocal part, often doubling or embellishing it.

Musical competitions, the agons, were of great importance and were held as part of various celebrations, such as the Pythian Games in Delphi. Singers, kithara players (players of the kithara) and aulets (players of the aulos) competed in them. The winners enjoyed great honor and fame. There were both professional musicians who earned their living from their art and numerous amateurs for whom music was part of everyday culture and education. Professionals often achieved a high level of virtuosity.

Music in Ancient Rome

Roman musical culture was in many ways the heir to the Greek. The Romans had great respect for the art of the Hellenes, borrowing and adapting it to their needs and tastes. However, Roman music also had its own distinctive features, reflecting the character of the civilization itself - more pragmatic, large-scale and focused on spectacle.

The Influence of Greek Music on Roman Culture

With the conquest of Greece in the 2nd century BC, the Romans gained direct access to a rich musical heritage. Greek theories, instruments, and musicians themselves began to penetrate into Rome. Educated Romans studied Greek music, and wealthy citizens hired Greek teachers for their children. Many Greek musicians, including virtuosos, came to Rome in search of work and recognition. This led to the widespread dissemination of Greek musical practices in Roman society. The Romans adapted Greek musical concepts, but often gave them a more practical or entertaining meaning.

The Role of Music in Roman Society

In Rome, music, as in Greece, accompanied various aspects of life, but the emphasis shifted somewhat. It played an important role in religious rites, such as ludi (public games) or sacrifices, where music was supposed to appease the gods and ensure the correct performance of the ritual. The tibia (the Roman equivalent of the aulos) was often heard during sacred actions.

Theatrical performances in Rome were also rich in music. The comedies of Plautus and Terence contained canticles - arias and recitatives performed to the accompaniment of the tibia. Pantomime - a dance and mime performance on a mythological plot, accompanied by music from a choir and orchestra - became especially popular. Here, music created an emotional background and emphasized the dancer’s movements.

Military music was of great importance in Rome. Trumpets (tuba, cornu, bucina) were used to give signals in battle, on the march, in the camp. Their powerful sounds raised the morale of the legionaries and frightened the enemies. Music accompanied the triumphal processions of commanders. Gladiatorial fights and other public spectacles in amphitheaters also took place to musical accompaniment. The sounds of the hydraulos (water organ), trumpets and percussion instruments increased the tension and drama of the event. In private life, at feasts and amusements, music served as entertainment. Rich Romans kept ensembles of slave musicians.

Roman Music Theory

The Romans did not create as original and profound a musical theory as the Greeks. They mainly relied on Greek sources, commenting on and systematizing them. The most significant Roman music theorist was Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius, who lived at the turn of the 5th – 6th centuries AD. His treatise “The Fundamentals of Music” (De institutione musica) became the main source of knowledge about ancient Greek theory for medieval Europe.

Boethius, based on Pythagorean and Platonic ideas, divided music into three types: musica mundana (music of the spheres, the harmony of the cosmos), musica humana (music reflecting the harmony of the soul and body of man) and musica instrumentalis (sounding music created by instruments or the voice). He expounded in detail the Greek doctrine of intervals, modes and consonances. Boethius’s work played an invaluable service in transmitting the ancient musical heritage to subsequent eras, although he himself probably valued theoretical knowledge of music more than practical performance.

Musical Instruments of Ancient Rome

The Romans used both Greek instruments and their own developments, especially in the field of brass and percussion. Their instrumentation was more powerful and loud, adapted to large spaces and mass spectacles.

Roman string instruments

The Roman kithara was similar to the Greek one, but could be larger and more richly decorated. The lyre also remained popular, especially for home music-making and education. The lute, known as the pandura, also became widespread. These instruments were used to accompany singing and solo performance.

Wind Instruments in Rome

The Roman equivalent of the Greek aulos was called tibia. Like the aulos, the tibia often came in pairs. It was widely used in the theater, religious ceremonies, and banquets. The Romans significantly developed brass instruments. The tuba is a straight bronze trumpet used in the army for signaling and ceremonies. The cornu is a large curved horn, also a military instrument, with a low, powerful sound. The bucina is a smaller horn or trumpet.

Of special note is the hydraulos, a water organ invented by the Greek engineer Ctesibius in the 3rd century BC, but widely used in Rome. The air pressure in it was maintained by a water press, which ensured a loud and stable sound. The hydraulos was used in gladiatorial games, circuses, and other public events.

Percussion instruments of the Romans

Roman percussion instruments were varied and were often used to create noise effects and rhythmic accompaniment at mass spectacles. These included the cymbala (cymbals), the scabellum (a foot rattle used to keep time by dancers and musicians), the sistrum (a metal rattle borrowed from Egypt and used in the cults of Isis and Cybele), as well as various drums and tambourines.

Performing practice in Rome

Roman performance practice was characterized by a desire for virtuosity, pomp, and spectacle. In contrast to the more restrained Greek ideal, the Romans valued volume, scale, and technical skill of performers. Large ensembles and choruses often performed, especially at public games and in the theater.

Professional musicians, many of whom were slaves or freedmen, could achieve a high level of skill and popularity. There were real star virtuosos whose performances attracted crowds. Some emperors, such as Nero, were themselves keen on music, performed publicly and patronized musicians. This contributed to the growing prestige of musical art, although the attitude towards professional musicians in aristocratic circles was not always unambiguous. Performance was often aimed at external effect, rather than at deep philosophical content, as was typical of the Greek tradition.

Comparison and contrast of musical cultures

Despite the close connection and continuity, the musical cultures of Ancient Greece and Rome had significant differences. The Greeks considered music primarily as a means of education, philosophical understanding of the world and achieving harmony. The ethos of music, its ability to influence morality, was important to them. The musical ideas of the Greeks were closely connected with mythology and religious cults, and the theory of music reached a high level of development.

The Romans, having adopted the Greek heritage, shifted the emphasis. For them, music often served entertainment purposes, accompanying lavish spectacles and military triumphs. The scale of performance, volume and virtuosity were valued more than philosophical depth. If Greek music was often chamber and refined, then Roman music gravitated toward grandeur and external effects. Theoretical research in Rome was less original and mainly boiled down to the systematization of Greek knowledge. However, it was thanks to Roman authors such as Boethius that this knowledge was preserved and passed on to subsequent eras.

The ethos of music, so important to the Greeks, faded into the background among the Romans. Although individual thinkers continued to discuss the moral impact of music, its hedonistic and spectacular function dominated in general practice. The scale of performance was disproportionately greater in Rome: huge choirs and orchestras in the arenas of circuses and amphitheatres were common, while in Greece more modest ensembles prevailed. The Romans also contributed to the development of certain instruments, especially brass instruments and the hydraulos, adapting them to their needs.

The Legacy of Greco-Roman Music

The musical heritage of Ancient Greece and Rome had a profound and lasting influence on the development of European musical culture. Although ancient music itself in its authentic sound was largely lost, the theoretical ideas and aesthetic principles continued to live.

Influence on Medieval Music

Medieval Europe acquired knowledge of ancient music mainly through the works of Roman theorists, especially Boethius. His teachings on modes, intervals, and consonances formed the basis of medieval musical theory. Gregorian chant, the central genre of church music, was built on a system of eight modes, which were considered to be derivatives of the ancient Greek ones. The idea of ​​the mathematical foundations of music, inherited from the Pythagoreans, was also adopted by medieval thinkers.

Theoretical treatises

Treatises by Greek (Aristoxenus, Ptolemy, Aristides Quintilian) and Roman (Boethius, Cassiodorus, Isidore of Seville) authors served as the main source of knowledge about music for many centuries. They were copied, commented on and studied in monastic schools and universities. These texts preserved for posterity the main concepts of ancient musical theory: the doctrine of harmony, modes, types of melodies, rhythm.

Revival of interest during the Renaissance

The Renaissance saw a surge of interest in ancient culture, including music. Humanists sought to revive the ideals of ancient Greek art. Although it was impossible to restore the sound of ancient music, its theoretical and aesthetic heritage inspired composers and theorists of the Renaissance. Attempts to recreate ancient Greek tragedy led to the birth of opera. Ideas about the ethos of music and its ability to evoke strong emotions were also reflected in the musical aesthetics of the Renaissance and subsequent eras.

Modern reconstructions and research

Nowadays, interest in the music of Ancient Greece and Rome does not wane. Scientists, musicians and enthusiasts continue to study the surviving theoretical works, fragments of notations and images of musical instruments. Attempts are made to reconstruct the sound of ancient instruments and perform musical samples that have come down to us. These studies help us better understand the role of music in the life of ancient civilizations and evaluate its contribution to world culture. The music of antiquity remains an important source of inspiration and a subject of scientific interest, revealing new facets of its rich heritage.

The reflections of Plato and Aristotle on the impact of music on the human soul and society have not lost their relevance. Their ideas on the educational and ethical functions of art find a response in modern discussions about the meaning of music. The Greek theory of modes, with its concept of ethos, indirectly influenced the development of the European modal system and even ideas about the expressive possibilities of tonalities in later times.

The Roman practice of using music in large-scale public events anticipated many aspects of modern musical life, from stadium concerts to film music and public celebrations. The Roman desire for spectacle and technical virtuosity also finds parallels in some areas of modern performing arts.

The surviving fragments of notation, such as the Epitaph of Seikilos, despite their brevity, are invaluable evidence. They allow us not only to hear, albeit in reconstruction, the melodies of antiquity, but also to analyze the principles of their construction. Studying these fragments, comparing them with theoretical descriptions and iconographic data helps to recreate a picture of the musical life of the past.

Instruments known from archaeological finds, images on vases, frescoes and mosaics are also an important source of information. Reconstruction of lyres, citharas, aulos, tibias and hydrauloses allows not only to imagine their appearance, but also to study their acoustic properties and performance capabilities. Musicians playing such reconstructed instruments strive to get closer to the authentic sound of ancient music.

The legacy of Greco-Roman music can also be traced in terminology. Many musical terms used today (melody, rhythm, harmony, choir, orchestra, organ, and others) have Greek or Latin roots. This is evidence of the continuity of cultural tradition and the foundation laid by ancient civilizations.

The deep connection of music with poetry and dance was one of the defining features of ancient culture. In Greece, poetic texts, especially lyric and drama, were inextricably linked with melody and rhythm. Poets were often both composers and performers of their works. The meter of the verse dictated the musical rhythm, and the melody enhanced the emotional content of the words. Choreography in theater and ritual dances was also closely coordinated with music, creating a single syncretic action. This interrelation of the arts was perceived as natural and harmonious.

In Rome, although the emphasis had shifted to spectacle, the connection between music and words remained important, especially in the theater. The canticles of comedies and the musical accompaniment of pantomime demonstrated this continuity. Roman poets such as Horace wrote odes that, at least in their structure and metrics, suggested musical performance, even if the music itself was not always written down or preserved. The art of recitation, so prized in Rome, also had musical aspects, related to the intonation and rhythmic organization of speech.

The gradual decline of the Western Roman Empire also brought about changes in musical culture. Large public spectacles with their loud music became less common. The growing influence of Christianity also brought new musical forms and ideals. Early Christian music, although absorbing some elements of the ancient tradition (for example, the use of modes and certain singing practices), developed in a different direction, focusing on spiritual content and liturgical functions. Ancient musical theory, however, did not disappear without a trace, but was preserved and adapted, becoming a bridge between antiquity and the Middle Ages.

The role of Boethius in this process of knowledge transfer is difficult to overestimate. His work "De institutione musica" became not just a compilation, but an authoritative source that shaped musical thinking for many centuries. Thanks to him, the Pythagorean doctrine of the numerical foundations of harmony, the Greek system of modes and the classification of music became firmly established in the intellectual baggage of medieval Europe. This made it possible to preserve continuity, despite the loss of most examples of ancient music itself.

The influence of ancient concepts was felt even in those areas where a complete break had seemingly occurred. For example, the medieval doctrine of the modes (modes) of church music, although it had its own peculiarities, undoubtedly went back to the Greek "harmonies". The idea of ​​music as a science, part of the quadrivium (along with arithmetic, geometry and astronomy), was also a direct legacy of antiquity, especially the Pythagorean tradition. This emphasized the high status of music in the system of knowledge.

The study of musical instruments from antiquity also continues to yield new discoveries. Archaeological finds such as fragments of bone or bronze aulos, remains of lyres or citharas allow not only to clarify their design, but also to conduct acoustic experiments. Analysis of wear on surviving instruments can provide insight into the specifics of performance technique. All this, combined with iconographic and textual evidence, helps to create increasingly accurate reconstructions.

It is also worth remembering the regional differences in the musical culture of the ancient world. Although we often speak of “Greek” or “Roman” music as a single entity, there were local traditions and styles. Music in Athens might differ from music in Sparta or Crete. In the vast Roman Empire, musical practices could also vary from province to province, absorbing local influences. However, the general principles and dominant tendencies discussed were widespread.

The extent to which music was perceived emotionally in antiquity remains a matter of debate. The theory of ethos suggests a strong emotional and moral impact. Many ancient authors speak of the power of music to calm, excite, or even heal. However, our modern perception of music, shaped by centuries of subsequent development, may differ from that of the ancient Greeks or Romans. Understanding this context is important for an adequate assessment of their musical legacy.

Musical competitions, as already mentioned, were an important part of Greek culture. They stimulated the development of performing skills and the creation of new works. The winners of the agons became celebrities. In Rome, there were also musical competitions, sometimes with huge prizes, which shows the high public interest in the art of music, even if its goals were more entertaining.

The legacy of ancient music is not limited to theory and isolated fragments. It is also a certain way of thinking about music, its place in the world and its possibilities. The idea of ​​music as a reflection of the cosmic order (musica mundana) or as a means of achieving inner harmony (musica humana) continued to inspire philosophers, theorists and composers for many centuries. These concepts, which originated in ancient times, demonstrate amazing vitality and relevance.

The mythological consciousness of the ancient Greeks was permeated with music. Gods and heroes were often depicted as skilled musicians. Apollo, the god of light, poetry and music, patronized the playing of the lyre and cithara, symbolizing harmony and order. Orpheus, the mythical singer, could tame wild animals, move stones and even touch the gods of the underworld with his music. These myths reflected the Greeks’ deep faith in the transformative power of musical art, its ability to influence nature and the human soul.

The Muses, daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne, were considered the patronesses of the arts and sciences, and many of them were directly associated with music: Euterpe with lyric poetry and music, Terpsichore with dance and choral singing, Erato with love poetry, often accompanied by music. The competition between Apollo and the satyr Marsyas, who played the aulos, symbolized not only a competition of instruments, but also the opposition of two aesthetic principles: the Apollonian, associated with reason and harmony, and the Dionysian, embodying ecstasy and spontaneity.

Philosophers paid close attention to music. Plato in his Republic and Laws examined in detail the role of music in the ideal polis. He believed that music could shape the character of citizens, and therefore proposed a strict selection of modes and rhythms for the education of youth. Preference was given to the Dorian and Phrygian modes as promoting courage and moderation, while the Ionian and Lydian modes were considered relaxing and effeminate. Aristotle in his Politics also recognized the educational value of music, but saw it as a means for “noble leisure” and achieving catharsis – purification through art.

The education of a free Greek, especially in the classical period, included compulsory music instruction (singing and playing the lyre). This was considered an important element of "musical" education aimed at the harmonious development of the individual. The ability to play music was a sign of a cultured person. However, the attitude towards professional musicians was ambiguous. Although outstanding virtuosos could enjoy fame, the very fact of earning money from music sometimes put them on a lower social level compared to amateur aristocrats.

In Rome, the attitude towards musicians was also complex. On the one hand, music was highly valued as part of culture and entertainment. On the other hand, professional music, especially for citizens of the upper classes, was not always considered worthy. Many musicians were slaves or freedmen of Greek origin. However, there were exceptions, such as the emperor Nero, who was proud of his musical talents and performed publicly, which, however, caused an ambiguous reaction from his contemporaries.

Musical knowledge and skills were transmitted both through formal training and informal channels – within the family, among friends, at celebrations. There were music schools where they taught playing instruments and singing. Masters passed on their knowledge to students, preserving and developing the traditions of performance. The absence of a developed and generally accepted notation system capable of accurately recording all the nuances of performance meant that oral tradition played a huge role in preserving and transmitting the musical repertoire.

Rhythm in ancient music was closely connected with the metric of verse. Greek poetry, based on the alternation of long and short syllables, set the rhythmic structure of the melody. Musical rhythm was subject to the laws of versification. This unity of word and music was a fundamental characteristic of Greek art. The Romans, having borrowed Greek poetic meters, also followed this principle, although with some modifications.

The study of ancient dances, often accompanied by music, also provides insight into rhythmic organization. Images of dancers on vases and frescoes, and descriptions in texts help to reconstruct the nature of the movements and their relationship to musical accompaniment. Dance, music, and poetry often formed a single, inseparable whole, especially in ritual and theatrical contexts.

Home music-making played a significant role in the lives of the educated classes. At Greek symposia and Roman banquets (convivia), participants often performed songs, accompanying themselves on the lyre or cithara. This was not only entertainment, but also a way of communicating, a manifestation of culture and education. The repertoire could include both well-known songs and improvisations.

Studies of the influence of ancient musical ideas on other arts, such as architecture and the visual arts, especially during the Renaissance, reveal interesting parallels. The concepts of harmony, proportion, and symmetry developed by Greek musical theorists were reflected in the principles of temple construction, sculpture, and painting. The idea that beauty is based on numerical relationships was common to many arts.

The knowledge that much of the ancient musical repertoire has been lost makes each surviving fragment and theoretical text especially valuable. Efforts to reconstruct the sound of ancient music, based on an interdisciplinary approach that combines musicology, archaeology, philology and instrumentation, allow us to at least partially touch this distant but still exciting world of sounds. This is painstaking work that requires deep knowledge and intuition, but it helps to revive the pages of history and better understand our cultural ancestors.

Thus, the musical universe of ancient Greece and Rome was rich and multifaceted. From philosophical reflections on cosmic harmony to the practical use of music in everyday life, from strict theoretical systems to vivid performance practices - all this testifies to the deep and enduring significance of music for ancient man. This legacy continues to inspire and nourish culture today.

Musical performances in Roman amphitheaters and circuses reached unprecedented scales. Orchestras could include hundreds of musicians playing trumpets, horns, hydraulos, and a variety of percussion instruments. The roar of these huge ensembles was intended to overwhelm the audience, heightening the emotional tension of gladiatorial fights, chariot races, or theatrical naval battles (naumachiae). Music here became part of a grandiose show designed to demonstrate the power and wealth of Rome.

The connection between music and rhetoric, the art of eloquence, was also important. Like a skilled orator, a musician sought to influence his listeners, to evoke certain emotions and reactions in them. The rhythmic organization of speech, the use of pauses, the change in pitch of the voice - all this had parallels in musical performance. Some theorists of rhetoric turned to musical analogies to describe the techniques of oratory. In turn, musical performance, especially vocal, required clear diction and meaningful phrasing, like expressive speech.

The philosophical debates about the purpose of music, initiated by the Greeks, continued in the Roman era. Some thinkers, following Plato, emphasized its educational and moral significance, while others, such as Philodemus of Gadara (an Epicurean), were skeptical about the idea of ​​music’s direct ethical influence, seeing it primarily as a source of pleasure. These discussions reflected different approaches to understanding the role of art in human life and society. For many Romans, the practical use of music in everyday life, at festivals, or as an accompaniment to spectacles was more important than its abstract philosophical interpretations.

The question of the role of women in ancient music deserves attention. In Greece, women, as a rule, did not participate in public musical competitions on an equal basis with men. However, they could study music at home, learn to play the lyre. Some hetaera were known for their musical and poetic talents. In religious cults, women often performed ritual songs and dances, for example, in the service of Dionysus or Demeter. In Sparta, girls’ choirs played an important role in rituals. In Rome, women from the upper classes could also receive a musical education, but their public performances were rare and were not always approved by public opinion.

By the end of the ancient era, musical culture began to change. The vast Roman Empire united many nations with their own musical traditions. The influence of Eastern cultures (from Syria, Egypt, Asia Minor) became increasingly noticeable, bringing new instruments, melodic turns and performance techniques. This diversity enriched the musical palette, but at the same time could lead to the erosion of classical Greco-Roman traditions.

The spread of Christianity also had a profound impact on musical practice. Early Christians, in forming their worship, partly used existing musical forms, but filled them with new content. They strove for simplicity and spirituality, rejecting the pomp and sensuality of pagan musical spectacles. New genres of church singing gradually developed, such as psalms, hymns, and antiphons, which formed the basis of medieval liturgical music. Although the attitude of the early church toward instrumental music was wary (because of its associations with pagan cults and secular entertainment), vocal music became a vital element of Christian worship.