Sumi-e:
The History of Japanese Monochrome Painting Automatic translate

Sumi-e (墨絵) is a special type of monochrome ink painting that occupies a place of honor in Japanese art. The name comes from the combination of two Japanese words: "sumi" (墨), meaning "ink", and "e" (絵), translated as "painting" or "picture". This artistic technique is characterized by the use of black ink with various shades of gray obtained by mixing the ink with water.

Sumi-e paintings are created on special rice paper or silk, which gives them a characteristic texture and depth. In classic sumi-e, only black ink is used, but over time, Japanese masters began to add colored mineral paints to create accents. Mastering sumi-e requires special concentration and many years of practice - the artist works quickly, without sketches, applying strokes to the paper in one gust, since corrections are impossible in this technique.

Chinese Roots of Sumi-e Art

The technique of monochrome ink painting originated in China during the Tang Dynasty (618-907). It reached its greatest flourishing during the Song (960-1271) and Yuan (1271-1368) dynasties. In China, this technique was called "guohua" and developed as an alternative to the official palace painting styles.

Chinese monochrome painting emerged as a form of self-expression for educated people – intellectuals, monks and officials who painted primarily “for themselves”. They were called “bunjin”, and they valued impromptu, inspiration and the mood of the moment. This style is closely related to calligraphy, which determined many of its features, including the expressiveness of lines and brushstrokes.

In the Chinese tradition, monochrome painting was considered the highest expression of artistic mastery. The artist had to convey the essence of the subject with minimal means – only black ink and a few brush strokes. This approach required a deep understanding of the nature of the depicted object and many years of practice.

Initially, the main subjects were landscapes, images of bamboo, orchids, chrysanthemums, plums – the so-called “four noble plants”. Each of these elements had a deep symbolic meaning in Chinese culture. Later, the subject matter expanded to include people, animals and everyday scenes.

The introduction of sumi-e into Japan

The technique of monochrome ink painting was brought to Japan around the 7th century by Japanese monks who studied Chinese culture. However, sumi-e became widespread much later – towards the end of the Kamakura period (1185-1333).

An important role in the spread of sumi-e was played by wandering Buddhist monks of the Zen (Chinese: Chan) school, who helped introduce many elements of Chinese culture to Japan, including painting styles that emerged during the Song and Yuan periods. Japanese monks believed that black and white images taught discipline and helped develop concentration.

In the second half of the 15th century, Toyo Sesshu, a monk from the Japanese temple Shokokuji, traveled to China. While visiting Buddhist monasteries, he studied local painting techniques, and upon his return to Japan, he brought the technique of monochrome ink drawing in its most mature form. Sesshu traveled throughout Japan, sketching local landscapes and improving his skills. Thanks to his efforts, the art of sumi-e became accessible and revered among the Japanese.

The term sumi-e has changed in meaning. Originally, in Heian period literary works such as the Diary of Murasaki Shikibu or the Tale of Glory, it was used to refer to the hakubyo style, in which only the outlines of the image were drawn with ink. In the Muromachi period, the term came to refer to the suibokuga style (ink and water painting), and the old meaning was largely forgotten. Nowadays, the terms sumi-e and suibokuga are synonymous.

The Rise of Sumi-e in the Muromachi Period

The Muromachi period (1338-1573) is considered the heyday of Japanese ink painting. This period saw the resumption of official relations with China, which was accompanied by new cultural borrowings, including Zen Buddhism, the cult of tea, and, of course, ink painting.

The Ashikaga shogunate actively supported Zen teachings, which contributed to the development of monastic artistic practices. During this period, the "literature of the five monasteries" flourished, and many monk-artists came from the Ashikaga house’s Shokokuji monastery in Kyoto.

In the 14th and 15th centuries, the predominant style of painting was the monochrome landscape in the sansui ("mountains-water") style, whose works decorated the palaces of aristocrats and the military elite. Representatives of this style were highly educated artists such as Kichizan Mincho (1352-1430), Joshetsu (1405-1423) and Seisshu Toyo (1420-1506), who studied in China.

The eighth shogun Ashikaga Yoshimasa was not interested in politics, but he put a lot of effort into the development of culture, collecting and appraising paintings and tea ceremony utensils brought from China. During this period, the paintings of the Southern Song Dynasty artists such as Xia Gui, Ma Yuan, Mu Qi and Liang Kai were most valued in Japan. They were valued in Japan even more than in China itself.

The earliest surviving Japanese sansui landscape is Geese Flying over a Deserted Plain, signed with the name "Sikan". This painting also bears the signature of the monk Issan Itinen, originally from China, so the painting was created no later than 1317, the year of his death. There are still some shortcomings in this work - the techniques of ink painting are not fully mastered, there is no clear sense of perspective.

Sumi-e Masters and Their Work

Zen monk Josetsu (1394-1428), according to legend, became the founder of the sumi-e style of landscape painting in Japan. His painting "Catching Fish with a Gourd", made on the personal order of the military ruler of Japan, is already quite independent and bears only traces of Chinese influence. This work reflects the unique Japanese approach to monochrome painting.

Seisshu Toyo (1420-1506) is considered one of the greatest sumi-e masters. He traveled extensively throughout China, studying local painting techniques and then adapting them to Japanese perceptions. Upon returning to Japan, Sesshu created a free-flowing brush style that had a significant influence on later Japanese painting. He traveled throughout Japan, sketching local landscapes and constantly improving his skills.

During the Muromachi period, many artists appeared in the provinces, most of them of samurai origin. The most famous of them is Sesson Shukei (1504-1589). He became a monk and continued to work until he was 80 in the Kanto and Aizu regions. Many of his works bear the imprint of his samurai upbringing.

Hosegawa Tohaku (1539-1610) was a prominent artist of his time. His legendary work, Pine Forest, in the format of two 6-panel screens, is currently kept in the Tokyo National Museum and is included in the list of national treasures of Japan. Each screen is 1.5 m by 3.5 m, and the pine trees are depicted with ink strokes in various shades of gray. In addition to monochrome works, Tohaku also created monumental works with paints on gold, demonstrating the diversity of his talent.

During the transition period from the Azuchi-Momoyama era to the Edo period, the artist Tovaraya Sotatsu worked, whose work marked the emergence of the exclusively Japanese style of sumi-e. He is also credited with founding the decorative school of Japanese painting Rinpa. Together with the artist Honami Koetsu, they created works of astonishing pictorialism.

Maruyama Okyo (1733-1795) was a master of life sketching. He decorated moving dolls and created canvases in the ukiyo-e style. Maruyama was able to masterfully use the empty space of the sheet in his compositions, which is one of the most important artistic tasks of sumi-e.

Sumi-e Philosophy and its Connection with Zen Buddhism

Sumi-e is inextricably linked with the philosophy of Zen Buddhism. Japanese monks used sumi-e as a form of meditative practice, believing that black and white images promoted concentration and discipline.

In sumi-e, as in Zen, everything superfluous is discarded. The master strives to convey the essence of the object, not its external details. Simple black lines drawn on white paper can represent a complex model, just as in Zen a few words can be the result of long hours of meditation.

The aesthetic concept of "karumi" (lightness), formulated by the poet Basho, plays an important role in sumi-e. According to this concept, the creative act should be performed instantly, in one breath. In sumi-e, there is only "now", and the applied brushstroke cannot be corrected - there is only one attempt. When asked how long it took him to paint the portrait of Bodhidharma (Daruma), the Zen artist Hakuin answered: "Ten minutes and eighty years."

Sumi-e painting embodies such aesthetic categories as wabi (subtle taste) and sabi (refined simplicity). Unlike classical Western painting, which strives for a realistic depiction of an object with detailed elaboration of volume and perspective, sumi-e aims to convey the essence of the depicted object and the mood of the artist.

Buddhism encourages artists to curb their desire to fully reflect the material world in their work. Instead, they should strive to convey the inner essence of an object, its spirit. To achieve this goal, a sumi-e master must study the object for a long time, meditate on it, and then convey its essence with one stroke of the brush.

Technique and features of sumi-e

One of the main features of sumi-e is its monochrome. Black sumi ink, when mixed with water, produces a rich range of shades from deep black to light gray. This minimalism in the color palette requires the artist to have special skill in conveying the volume, texture, and emotional content of the painting.

The concept of "yohaku" plays an important role in sumi-e - the effect of empty white space on the plane of the picture. Yohaku gives the painting depth and significance, awakens in the viewer a feeling of the inexhaustibility of the source of cosmic life. Similar principles were featured in the art of the Noh theater - the ability to arouse interest in the absence of visible action. In the art of the tea ceremony, such a principle is "takekurami" (mystery, non-manifestation). Yohaku is the basis for understanding religious experience in art, the pinnacle of which is the category of "yugen".

Another important technique is "tarashikomi" - dripping ink. In Western painting, ink that has spread from water is considered a mistake by the artist, but in Japanese painting, this is seen as a special beauty. Tarashikomi allows you to convey a foggy atmosphere, a humid climate, create blurred outlines and unclear landscapes. With this technique, another layer of ink is applied to a wet layer, due to which the iridescence of the ink, its fluidity and multi-layeredness are visible.

In sumi-e, every movement of the artist has meaning. Dots and spots are an important element in drawing ink paintings. A brush soaked in water can create the effect of moss covering trees or rocks. Dots placed far apart convey a rough surface, and droplets add rhythm and emphasis to important details.

The artist’s task is not to reproduce reality in a photographically precise manner - he discards everything that he does not consider essential. The artist depicts nature as it is drawn in his imagination, embodying its essence. The master first studies any images for a long time and stores them in his memory as he saw and felt them.

Materials and tools

The basic tools of a sumi-e artist are the so-called "four treasures of the study" (in Japanese "bunbo-shiho") - a brush, paper, ink and an inkwell. However, a number of additional materials and tools are required for full-fledged work.

Brushes (fude) for sumi-e are traditional oriental brushes of Japanese or Chinese manufacture. They have a special structure, due to which they retain moisture well and provide wide opportunities for artistic expression. Brushes are made from the fur of various animals: goat, weasel, badger, raccoon dog, horse, deer. There are three main types of brushes: soft, hard and mixed. Each type is intended for certain artistic tasks.

Ink (sumi) is the key material in sumi-e. Skillful use of ink shades makes the painting “live”. Traditionally, Chinese dry ink is used – soot with glue in the form of sticks or tiles. To work, the ink stick is ground with water on an inkstone. Dry ink is considered good if it gives a warm black tone with a metallic shade, is uniform in the fracture and does not wash off after drying.

Paper (kami) for sumi-e is usually made from rice. In Japanese it is called "gasenshi". There are many types of paper, each with its own distinctive features. The choice of paper depends on what brushstroke techniques will be used in drawing. Sumi-e paper is very thin, brushstrokes quickly blur, which creates both the complexity and special expressiveness of this technique.

An ink pot (suzuri) is a container for grinding ink with water. Traditionally made of stone, it has a recess for water and a flat part for grinding ink. The quality of the ink pot also affects the result of the work.

Additional tools include: a paper pad (shitajiki) - a cloth that is placed under the paper while drawing; a paperweight (bunchin) - to fix the sheet; a palette (ezara) - for mixing shades of ink; a container for washing the brush (hissen); an eyedropper (suiteki) - for adding water; a cloth for wiping the brush (fukin).

Styles and schools of sumi-e

Over the centuries, various sumi-e schools and trends have formed in Japan, each with its own characteristics and artistic techniques. Unlike China, where ink painting developed in the mainstream of common traditions, in Japan, masters of different schools turned to it, which significantly expanded the range of expressive means of this art.

In the 18th century, the Chinese style of bunjinga ("painting of intellectual artists"), which was called nanga in Japan, came into fashion. Artists of this style, inspired by Chinese culture, particularly valued the painting of the Yuan, Ming and Qin dynasties. Outstanding masters of nanga were Ike no Taiga (1723-1776), Yosa Buson (1716-1784), Uragami Gyokudo (1745-1820), and Tanomura Chikuden (1777-1835). They creatively rethought the traditions of Japanese and Chinese painting, giving their paintings a mood of deep lyricism and unique individuality.

Representatives of the original Japanese painting Yamato-e introduced plastic elements into sumi-e, using the decorative possibilities of ink stains and lines. Thus arose a style that did not repeat classical subjects, but depicted them in a completely new decorative manner. This approach significantly enriched the artistic language of sumi-e.

The Kano school, founded in the 15th century, combined Chinese ink painting techniques with the coloristic traditions of Japanese Yamato-e painting. Artists of this school created both monochrome works and brightly colored polychrome works on a gold background, demonstrating the versatility of sumi-e techniques.

The Rinpa school, founded in the early 17th century, was characterized by its decorativeness and use of bright colors combined with the tarashikomi technique. Rinpa artists often used gold and silver paints, creating luxurious, festive works.

The orientation towards Chinese models has always been characteristic of Japanese monochrome painting. However, the amazing ability of the Japanese to masterfully interpret borrowings led to the fact that the models coming from the mainland were gradually transformed in the spirit of domestic artistic trends, acquiring unique Japanese features.

Sumi-e plots and themes

The subject matter of sumi-e has evolved significantly over time. If until the 14th century the main subjects of painting were chinzo portraits (portraits of patriarchs) and images of flowers and birds, then from the 15th century onwards Japan began to paint classical Chinese landscapes sansui ("mountains-water") in the full sense of the word.

Landscapes occupy a special place in sumi-e painting. Artists sought to convey not just the appearance of nature, but its inner essence, mood, atmosphere. Mountains, rivers, fog, trees – all these elements became the expression of philosophical ideas about the relationship between man and nature, about the eternal cycle of things.

An important place in the theme of sumi-e is occupied by images of plants and animals. Particularly popular were the "four noble plants": bamboo, orchid, chrysanthemum and plum blossom. Each of these plants had a symbolic meaning: bamboo represented fortitude and flexibility of character, orchid - sophistication and purity of thoughts, chrysanthemum - fortitude in the face of adversity, and plum blossom - beauty and fortitude in adverse conditions.

Images of animals, especially birds and fish, were also popular among sumi-e artists. They symbolized various qualities and virtues, as well as seasons and natural phenomena. For example, the crane was considered a symbol of longevity, the carp of strength and tenacity, and the pine tree of durability and endurance.

Over time, the subject matter of sumi-e expanded to include everyday scenes, historical events, and even humorous sketches. Artists began to interpret traditional subjects more freely, bringing their own vision and individual style to them.

An important aspect of sumi-e was the creation of works on vertical scrolls – shigajiku. This is a format in which the lower part of the scroll depicts a sansui landscape, and in the empty upper part, Chinese poems related to the pictorial theme of the scroll were written. This combination of poetry and painting created a complete work of art that simultaneously affects different senses.

Sumi-e in the modern world

The art of sumi-e continues to exist and develop in modern Japan and beyond. Today, there are various schools and associations that teach this ancient art and help preserve and popularize it.

In Japan, sumi-e art is supported as part of traditional cultural heritage. There are specialized schools that teach sumi-e techniques, and exhibitions and competitions are held. One of the significant associations is the International Association of Sumi-e Calligraphers and Painters, based in Tokyo.

Contemporary Japanese sumi-e artists strive to preserve traditional techniques while introducing new elements that suit contemporary perception. They experiment with materials, formats, and the combination of traditional techniques with new artistic means, which allows the art of sumi-e to remain alive and relevant.

The art of sumi-e has spread to many countries around the world, including Russia, where there are schools and clubs teaching this technique. Master classes, exhibitions and lectures are held on Japanese monochrome painting. Interest in sumi-e is associated not only with the aesthetic appeal of this art, but also with its philosophical depth, the meditative nature of the process of creating paintings.

Many contemporary artists of non-Japanese origin turn to sumi-e as a source of inspiration and new artistic possibilities. They combine traditional techniques with modern materials and approaches, creating works that retain the spirit of traditional art but respond to contemporary aesthetic demands.

In the modern world, sumi-e art is not only an artistic technique, but also a way of spiritual self-improvement, meditation and the search for harmony with nature. It attracts people with its philosophy of minimalism, the aesthetics of understatement and deep symbolism, offering an alternative to the accelerating pace of modern life.

Sumi-e practice as a path to self-knowledge

For centuries, the practice of sumi-e was primarily confined to monasteries. Zen monks used ink painting as a form of meditation, a way to achieve enlightenment through artistic creation. This tradition continues today, with many turning to sumi-e not so much for the sake of creating art, but as a path to self-knowledge and spiritual growth.

The process of creating a painting using the sumi-e technique requires a special state of consciousness – the artist must be completely focused, in harmony with himself and the world around him. Before starting to draw, the master often meditates, tuning in to the subject of the image, trying to comprehend its essence. Only after that does he take a brush and apply a stroke to the paper in one movement.

The Zen artist Hakuin said that it takes “ten minutes and eighty years” to create a painting – ten minutes of actual brushwork and eighty years of previous practice and spiritual growth. This expression emphasizes that sumi-e is not just a painting technique, but a way of life, a path of spiritual development.

Sumi-e practice teaches acceptance of imperfection and impermanence – key concepts of Zen Buddhism. An artist cannot correct a brushstroke, he must accept it as it is and continue working, taking into account what has already been done. This feature of sumi-e makes it a powerful tool for developing acceptance, flexibility of thought, and the ability to live in the present moment.

For beginning artists, sumi-e offers a unique experience of liberation from perfectionism and the fear of mistakes. During the training process, masters often advise students not to strive to create “perfect” paintings, but to enjoy the process of drawing itself, observing the movement of the brush and the flow of ink on the paper. This approach helps to develop spontaneity, intuition and creative freedom.

The artistic heritage of sumi-e

The artistic heritage of sumi-e includes thousands of works created over the centuries. Many of them are kept in museums in Japan and other countries, some are included in the list of national treasures of Japan.

One of the most famous sumi-e works is Hosegawa Tohaku’s Pine Forest, a pair of six-panel screens in the Tokyo National Museum. This work demonstrates a masterful mastery of the sumi-e technique - the pine trees are depicted with only a few brushstrokes of ink against an empty background, but they create the impression of a misty forest filled with air and light.

Another famous work is Hakuin Ekaku’s "Bodhidharma", depicting the founder of Zen Buddhism. This work is distinguished by its expressive manner of execution, conveying the spiritual strength and determination of Bodhidharma. With a few brush strokes, the artist managed to convey not only the external appearance, but also the inner essence of the depicted character.

The painting "Catching Fish with a Gourd" by Josetsu is another important example of Japanese monochrome painting. This work, commissioned by the military ruler of Japan, demonstrates the original Japanese approach to the sumi-e technique, different from Chinese examples.

Sumi-e masterpieces are not limited to works of the past. Modern masters create works that continue and develop the traditions of this art. They experiment with formats, materials, combine traditional techniques with new artistic means, which allows the art of sumi-e to remain alive and relevant.

The influence of sumi-e has spread far beyond Japan. Many 20th-century Western artists, such as Mark Tobey and Franz Kline, were influenced by Eastern calligraphy and monochrome painting. Minimalism, spontaneity, attention to empty space – all these features of sumi-e have found their way into Western modernist art.

Sumi-e and other Japanese art forms

Sumi-e is closely related to other traditional Japanese arts such as calligraphy, tea ceremony, haiku poetry, and ikebana flower arrangement. All of these arts share a desire for simplicity, attention to detail, respect for nature, and minimalist aesthetics.

Sumi-e is especially closely related to calligraphy. Both art forms use the same tools – brush, ink and paper – and require similar technical skills. Many sumi-e artists were also skilled calligraphers, and their paintings were often accompanied by calligraphic inscriptions – poems or philosophical sayings that complemented the visual image.

Sumi-e also has much in common with haiku poetry. Both arts seek to convey the essence of a phenomenon with minimal means, to create an image that evokes in the viewer or reader a chain of associations that extend far beyond what is directly depicted or said. Both sumi-e and haiku often refer to nature, the seasons, and the fleeting states of the world.

The tea ceremony, which developed in parallel with sumi-e, also shares many of its aesthetic principles – simplicity, naturalness, attention to detail, and respect for imperfection. Sumi-e paintings often decorated the tokonoma, a niche in the teahouse where works of art were displayed, creating an atmosphere for the ceremony.

The influence of sumi-e can also be seen in Japanese gardens, especially in the so-called "dry gardens" karesansui. These gardens, consisting of stones and sand, can be seen as three-dimensional embodiments of sumi-e landscapes - the same mountains and water conveyed with minimal means, the same use of empty space as an active element of the composition.

Sumi-e aesthetics have influenced many aspects of Japanese culture, from architecture to the design of everyday objects. Black and white, asymmetry, the use of negative space, attention to texture and line are all characteristics of sumi-e and can be found in various forms of Japanese art and design.

Worldwide recognition of sumi-e

With the opening of Japan to the Western world in the second half of the 19th century, sumi-e art, like other aspects of Japanese culture, became known in Europe and America. Japanese ukiyo-e prints had a significant influence on the Impressionists and Post-Impressionists, and sumi-e monochrome painting attracted the attention of artists seeking new ways of expression.

In the 20th century, many Western artists, such as Mark Tobey, Franz Kline, Robert Motherwell, were influenced by Eastern calligraphy and ink painting. Expressiveness, spontaneity, attention to gesture and brush movement – ​​these features of sumi-e were reflected in abstract expressionism and other modernist movements.

In the second half of the 20th century, interest in sumi-e outside Japan continued to grow. Schools and masters teaching this technique appeared in various countries around the world. Books and articles about sumi-e became available in many languages, which contributed to the popularization of this art.

Today, sumi-e is recognized worldwide as a unique art form that combines technical mastery with deep philosophy. Exhibitions of Japanese monochrome painting are held in the world’s largest museums, attracting the attention of art connoisseurs.

Growing interest in mindfulness and meditation practices has also contributed to the popularity of sumi-e. Many people turn to this art not only for aesthetic pleasure, but also as a way to achieve inner harmony, develop concentration, and creative self-expression.

Modern technologies open up new opportunities for studying and practicing sumi-e. Online courses, video tutorials, virtual exhibitions make this art accessible to people all over the world. At the same time, respect for traditional techniques and philosophical foundations of sumi-e is maintained, which allows to preserve its authenticity.

Originating in China and developing over many centuries in Japan, sumi-e has become part of the world’s cultural heritage, continuing to inspire artists and art lovers around the world with its simplicity, depth and beauty.