The role of folklore in medieval art Automatic translate

Folklore in the Middle Ages was a central part of cultural life, permeating all levels of society. It represented a body of orally transmitted knowledge, traditions, and artistic expressions shared by a particular community. In an era when literacy remained the privilege of a small circle, oral tradition served as the primary means of preserving and transmitting cultural memory, moral norms, and social values. This dynamic, ever-changing heritage, unlike static, authorial literature, lived on in the performance of storytellers, who could adapt their narratives to a specific audience.

Medieval art, in turn, served a didactic function, serving as a "Bible for the illiterate." It was intended to convey complex religious dogmas and biblical stories to the masses. The interaction of these two powerful cultural forces — oral folklore and visual canonical art — produced a unique synthesis in which folk motifs, images, and stories were reflected in stone, wood, metal, and on the pages of manuscripts.

The nature of folklore and its medieval context

The term "folklore," meaning "folk wisdom," was introduced into scholarly circulation in 1846 by the English scholar William Thoms. Initially, "folk" referred to rural, often illiterate peasants, and "lore" to their inherited knowledge and forms of self-expression. Over time, this definition expanded, and today it encompasses any social group united by shared traditions. Medieval folklore is the oral tradition created and transmitted in Europe between the 5th and 15th centuries.

Unlike literature, which is a written body of text, folklore was passed on orally. The storyteller was free to alter and embellish the story, and the performance itself was an integral part of the narrative tradition. This made folklore a living, flexible system, capable of adapting to changing social conditions. It served to affirm cultural rituals, reinforce moral values, exert social pressure, and even provide psychological relief, allowing people to escape the constraints imposed by society.

In a context of near-universal illiteracy, oral tradition was the primary channel of mass communication. This is why visual art became a kind of "textbook" for the people. Translating folklore into images was not simply a decorative device, but a necessity for cultural transmission. Art gave folklore a permanent, accessible form, and folklore, in turn, enriched art with a rich, culturally significant vocabulary that went beyond the Holy Scriptures. Thus arose a symbiotic relationship: art preserved folklore, and folklore nourished art.

The social function of oral tradition

Folklore, as a bottom-up cultural phenomenon, represented a flexible counterpoint to the static, top-down dogma of the Church and feudal power. Although medieval art was primarily commissioned and financed by the Church and the secular aristocracy, its inclusion of folkloric elements testifies to the dialogue between official culture and popular beliefs. Art became a space where these two worlds met, sometimes harmoniously, sometimes in conflict.

Artists and patrons likely recognized that the use of familiar images and themes made religious art more accessible and understandable. This allowed for a bridge between doctrine and everyday life, translating abstract theological ideas into the language of popular culture. Thus, folklore not only permeated art — it actively contributed to the formation of its language, making it truly comprehensive.

Visual language of the Middle Ages

Medieval European art is a synthesis of the artistic legacy of the Roman Empire, the iconographic traditions of the early Christian church, and the "barbarian" culture of Northern Europe. Its primary goal was to convey Christian truths and moral lessons to the viewer, and so it was predominantly religious in nature. This didactic nature defined its key stylistic features.

One of the main characteristics of medieval art is its rejection of the naturalism characteristic of classical antiquity. Instead of accurately depicting the physical world, artists focused on conveying symbolic and spiritual meaning. This led to the emergence of stylized, often elongated figures, hierarchical compositions where the size of a character depended on their importance, and flat, depthless images. This artistic language was ideally suited to narrative, where the importance lies not in external authenticity, but in the inner message.

This deliberate departure from realism created a kind of "symbolic vacuum." If an image didn’t have to be believable, it could be filled with any symbolic content. Folklore, with its rich vocabulary of fantastical creatures, allegorical motifs, and non-literal themes, was ideally suited to fill this void. The stylized, abstract nature of folk art, such as Celtic braiding, harmonized harmoniously with the anti-naturalistic tendencies of early medieval art. A dragon or a griffin didn’t need to appear "real" in a world where even saints were depicted conventionally; it was enough that they were symbolically compelling.

Periodization and styles

Medieval art is traditionally divided into several major periods, each with its own unique characteristics. Three main stages are distinguished in the history of Western European art: Pre-Romanesque (5th – 9th centuries), Romanesque (10th – 12th centuries), and Gothic (12th – 14th centuries). The Pre-Romanesque period includes such styles as Migration Period art, Byzantine, Insular, and Carolingian art.

The Romanesque style, the first pan-European style, was characterized by massive stone churches with thick walls, semicircular arches, and abundant sculptural decoration. The Gothic style that replaced it brought revolutionary architectural innovations: pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and flying buttresses, which allowed for the construction of taller, brighter cathedrals with enormous stained-glass windows. These stylistic changes also reflected shifts in public consciousness — from the austere monumentality of the Romanesque era to the soaring spirituality of the Gothic.

A constant feature of medieval art throughout all periods was the use of precious materials: gold, ivory, gems, and vibrant pigments. Gold was used to create church vessels, as a background for mosaics, and as gold leaf in manuscripts. These materials not only demonstrated the client’s wealth but also symbolized divine light, holiness, and the enduring value of the subject. When precious materials were used to depict a folkloric creature, such as a dragon on a gold reliquary, it gave the folk motif status and longevity, bringing it closer to religious icons. The material itself could sanctify the legend, blurring the line between the sacred and the secular.

Bestiary in Stone and Thread: Mythical Creatures

Fantastic beasts from folklore and medieval bestiaries — collections of zoological articles with allegorical interpretations — were widely integrated into art. Their images adorned the pages of manuscripts, the capitals of columns, the portals of cathedrals, and precious tapestries. Reinterpreted through the prism of Christian doctrine, these creatures became powerful allegorical tools for didactic and moralizing purposes. Their often ambiguous symbolism allowed for the explanation of complex theological concepts through vivid and memorable images familiar to the common people.

Dragon

The dragon was one of the most powerful and widespread creatures in medieval art. Its image appears in chronicles, manuscripts, sculpture, and heraldry. The dragon’s symbolism was twofold. On the one hand, it often personified the devil, paganism, and primordial chaos. In the lives of saints, the dragon was portrayed as an enemy of humanity, vanquished by heroes of the faith, such as Saint George or Saint Margaret. Victory over the dragon symbolized the triumph of Christianity over pagan beliefs or good over evil.

On the other hand, the dragon could be a symbol of power, wisdom, and protection. In heraldry, it personified valor and strength. In illuminated manuscripts, dragons were sometimes depicted as guardians of the "treasure of the word on the page," protecting the sacred text. Their sinuous, flexible bodies were ideal for the complex interweaving of Insular and Romanesque ornamentation, blending seamlessly into the decorative structure of the manuscripts.

Unicorn

According to folklore, the unicorn was a ferocious and untamable beast that could only be tamed by a virgin. This story formed the basis of one of the most powerful Christian allegories. The unicorn became a symbol of Christ, and its capture by a virgin became an allegory of the Incarnation through the Virgin Mary. The vulnerability of the invincible creature to the purity of the virgin metaphorically reflected the divine nature of Christ in human form.

The most famous work on this theme is the series of seven tapestries, "The Hunt of the Unicorn." They depict the entire cycle in detail: the hunt, capture, death, and resurrection of the beast, directly related to the Passion of Christ. However, the unicorn’s symbolism was not static. Over time, the motif acquired a secular meaning, becoming an allegory of courtly love. The tamed unicorn symbolized an amorous knight, captivated by his lady. This flexibility of the symbol allowed it to be used in both ecclesiastical and aristocratic art.

Griffin

The griffin — a mythical creature with the body of a lion and the head and wings of an eagle — combined the traits of the king of beasts and the king of birds. It symbolized courage, vigilance, and strength. In Christian art, its dual nature became the perfect allegory for the dual nature of Christ himself: divine (eagle/bird) and human (lion/animal).

Due to their symbolism, griffins were often cast as powerful guardians. Their sculptures were placed on church portals and choirs, where they protected the sacred space from evil forces. Bestiaries described griffins as ferocious predators capable of carrying off a bull in their claws or tearing a man to pieces, a theme echoed in some sculptural compositions.

Thus, mythical creatures from folklore became more than just decorative elements in medieval art. They were complex allegorical tools that allowed for the visualization and explanation of abstract theological doctrines. The Church deliberately exploited these captivating characters, translating theological concepts into their images, making them understandable and memorable for a wide audience.

Heroic sagas and moral fables in visual form

In addition to individual mythological images, medieval art actively drew on entire narrative cycles from folklore. Heroic epics and satirical fables, translated into pictorial language, served as models for both secular and spiritual behavior and also provided an opportunity for allegorical social critique. These stories, well-known and beloved by the people, became the basis for monumental murals, book miniatures, and carved decoration.

Arthurian cycle

The legends of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table were a dominant theme in secular aristocratic art. Originating in Celtic folklore, these tales codified the ideals of chivalry, courtly love, and feudal loyalty. They became the mythological foundation for the European warrior class, offering models of valor and honor. While ecclesiastical art provided a model for spiritual life, Arthurian legends offered a parallel model of secular, courtly identity.

Subjects from the Arthurian cycle were depicted in a wide variety of media. They adorned the walls of castles and palaces as large-scale frescoes, such as Pisanello’s unfinished cycle in Mantua. They can also be found as exquisite miniatures in illuminated manuscripts commissioned by the nobility. Depicting scenes of tournaments, the quest for the Holy Grail, or the exploits of individual knights, art visually reinforced the social structure of feudal society, rooting its values ​​in a heroic mythical past drawn from folklore.

The Novel of the Fox

Another popular folklore cycle, the "Romance of the Fox," served a completely different function. These fables, whose main character was the cunning and roguish fox Reynard, who deceived other anthropomorphic animals, became widespread throughout Europe. The Reynard stories were parodies of medieval literature, particularly chivalric romances and heroic songs, and also sharp satires on political and religious institutions. The clergy and aristocracy were often the primary targets of ridicule.

The Romance of the Fox provided a safe outlet for criticism of those in power. By transposing social vices into the animal kingdom, artists and writers could express subversive ideas that would otherwise be dangerous to express directly. In art, Reynard most often appears in the margins of manuscripts. One of the most popular motifs is a fox in monk’s garb preaching to a flock of geese or chickens. This was a direct and humorous mockery of the hypocrisy of the clergy, softened by its allegorical form and "marginal" placement on the page. Another common motif is Reynard’s funeral, where his enemies hypocritically mourn him, mocking his insincere piety. Thus, this fable cycle functioned as a licit outlet for social discontent, allowing cynicism to be expressed through entertainment.

Folk beliefs carved into sacred spaces

The architecture of medieval churches and cathedrals is itself a text, intertwining official doctrine with popular beliefs. The sculptural decoration adorning the facades, capitals, and interiors often features imagery rooted in the pre-Christian past. Figures such as the Green Man and the Sheela-na-gig, as well as grotesque gargoyles, testify to how the Church engaged with powerful folkloric symbols, integrating them into the fabric of sacred buildings.

Green Man

The Green Man is a motif of a male face formed from or surrounded by leaves, with shoots and branches emerging from his mouth, nose, or eyes. This image is found in churches across Europe, from England to Germany. Its interpretation is controversial. The popular view, first formulated by Lady Raglen in 1939, sees it as a pagan symbol of nature, fertility, and rebirth, associated with ancient vegetation cults.

However, modern scholars generally reject the idea that the Green Man is a manifestation of secret pagan resistance. They point out that these images are too numerous and placed in prominent locations to be subversive. It is more likely that it is a Christianized motif. In the Christian context, it could have had several meanings: in the Roman period, it symbolized the threat of demonic forces; later, it personified resurrection (in connection with the legend of Seth, the son of Adam, who planted the seed of the Tree of Knowledge in the mouth of his dead father); or it simply served as a reminder of the frailty of human life.

The very presence of such figures on churches testifies to the Church’s confidence in its ability to absorb, neutralize, and reinterpret powerful folk symbols. This is not so much proof of paganism’s persistence as an act of symbolic conquest. The Green Man ceases to be a forest deity and becomes a decorative element, literally supporting the Christian cosmos. Sacred space "tames" the wildness of folklore.

Sheila-na-gig

Sheela-na-gigs are an even more enigmatic image. These are stone carvings of naked women, pointedly pointing to their exaggeratedly large genitals. They are found primarily on medieval churches in Ireland and Great Britain. Their meaning is still the subject of heated debate.

There are several main theories. According to one, they are a warning against the sin of lust. Another sees them as an apotropaic (evil-warding) amulet, since, according to folk belief, the sight of female genitalia wards off the devil. A third theory links them to pre-Christian fertility cults or mother goddesses. Finally, some researchers suggest that they are depictions of folk deities patronizing childbirth.

Gargoyles and grotesques

Gargoyles and grotesques are carved figures of fantastical creatures, humans, or animals, that adorn the exterior walls of cathedrals. Gargoyles serve a utilitarian function as gutters, diverting rainwater away from the building’s walls, while grotesques are purely decorative elements. Their frightening, bizarre, and comical forms are rooted in folk beliefs.

These creatures were believed to possess apotropaic powers and the ability to ward off evil spirits, protecting the church and its occupants. Gargoyles thus demonstrate the practical fusion of folk magic with Christian architecture. The church, while officially condemning magic, was pragmatic enough in practice to incorporate protective folk traditions that resonated with parishioners, presenting them as guardians of sacred space.

The world inside out: marginalia and misericordia

Beyond monumental art, folklore found a unique home in "unofficial" spaces — in the margins of manuscripts and on hidden carved elements of church furniture. These secluded corners offered artists and carvers freedom to engage in humor, parody, and depict scenes from everyday life, opening a window into the world of medieval popular imagination.

Handwritten marginalia (droleri)

The margins of medieval manuscripts, especially those of the 13th and 14th centuries, are often filled with whimsical, humorous, and sometimes obscene drawings known as drolleries (from the French drôlerie, meaning "fun" or "eccentricity"). These images typically had no direct relation to the main, sacred text on the page. They provided a space for creative freedom for scribes and illuminators.

One of the central themes of the marginalia was the "inverted world" (monde renversé) — a popular folkloric motif in which social and natural hierarchies were inverted. The margins of manuscripts feature scenes of hares and rabbits hunting humans, armed knights battling snails, and animals parodying human activities, such as playing musical instruments or organizing funeral processions.

These images embodied the medieval concept of carnival, also present in folk festivals such as the Feast of Fools. The margins of sacred text became licensed spaces for parody, chaos, and the temporary suspension of hierarchies. The drawings of killer rabbits were not random scribbles, but a visual expression of a deeply rooted folk tradition of carnival reversal, which provided psychological release amidst a rigid social order. The manuscript page thus became a microcosm of medieval society: a sacred center surrounded by "carnival" fields where rules were temporarily suspended.

Misericordia

Misericordia (from the Latin misericordia, meaning "mercy") are small wooden shelves on folding seats in church choirs, designed to support monks and clergy during long services. Since these carved elements were hidden from view when the seats were lowered, woodcarvers had considerable creative freedom. The images on misericordia are often more humorous than pious.

They feature scenes from everyday life (a wife pulling her husband’s hair), illustrations of proverbs and fables, depictions of artisans at work, as well as fantastical creatures and grotesque figures. Misericordia offer a rare, unfiltered glimpse into "folklife." They are an officially sanctioned yet hidden archive of popular culture at the heart of sacred space, documenting the everyday concerns, humor, and wisdom of ordinary people, often absent from elite art and written sources.

Regional manifestations of folk tradition in art

The interaction between folklore and canonical art was not uniform across Europe. Different regions developed unique visual languages ​​that reflected local mythological traditions and the historical context of their encounter with Christianity. A comparison of Celtic, Scandinavian, and Slavic art reveals a spectrum of cultural synthesis models — from profound integration to persistent preservation and subtle influence.

Insular (Celtic) art

In Ireland and Britain, a profound fusion of pre-Christian Celtic motifs with Christian themes occurred, giving rise to a unique Insular, or Hiberno-Saxon, style. Here, ancient ornamental traditions not only embellished Christian art but became its fundamental grammar.

• The Book of Kells : This masterpiece of book illustration is a striking example of such synthesis. The pages of the Gospel are covered with intricate patterns of Celtic knots, spirals, and zoomorphic interlacings, which serve as a decorative frame for the sacred text. The manuscript is also rich in animal symbolism, with snakes representing resurrection and peacocks representing immortality, connecting Christian interpretation with more ancient beliefs.
• Irish High Crosses : These monumental stone crosses, erected from the 9th century onward, are another example of cultural fusion. They combine the shape of the Christian cross with the pagan symbol of the circle (representing the sun or eternity). The crosses’ surfaces are covered in carvings, where biblical scenes juxtapose abstract Celtic designs. These crosses served as public monuments to the new, syncretic faith.

Scandinavian art

In Scandinavia, particularly Norway, the conversion to Christianity occurred later, and pagan mythological themes remained relevant longer. The art of this region demonstrates not so much a fusion as a coexistence and juxtaposition of pagan and Christian motifs.

• Stave churches (stave churches) : Norway’s unique stave churches bear witness to this cultural dialogue. Their carved portals are often decorated with scenes from Norse mythology placed alongside Christian symbols. The most famous example is the portal of the stave church in Hylestad, which depicts in detail the legend of Sigurd slaying the dragon Fafnir, from the Völsunga Saga. This juxtaposition of pagan epic and Christian church reflects a period of cultural transition.
• Runestones : Viking Age memorial stones also often feature images from Norse mythology. They depict the god Thor capturing the world serpent Jörmungandr, Odin being devoured by the wolf Fenrir during Ragnarök, and scenes from the Sigurd saga. These stones served to commemorate ancestors and their deeds, appealing to a shared heroic past steeped in mythology.

Slavic traditions

In the art of the Slavic peoples, the influence of pre-Christian paganism was more subtle, yet structurally significant. After the Christianization of Rus’, pagan idols were destroyed, but elements of ancient cosmology and aesthetics were preserved and adapted within Orthodox culture.

• Folk art and folklore characters : Such vivid folklore figures as Baba Yaga, the ambiguous image of the witch-ancestor, continued to live on in folk art, for example, in popular prints.
• Architecture : Some researchers believe that elements of pre-Christian worldview influenced the architecture of Russian Orthodox churches. Forms such as the onion dome and hipped roof may have roots in ancient Slavic wooden architecture and pagan sanctuaries. In this case, the influence of folklore manifested itself not in specific iconographic motifs, but in deeper, structural forms.

A comparison of these regional traditions reveals no single model of interaction between folklore and official art. Instead, we see a spectrum — from profound integration in Celtic art, through direct juxtaposition in Scandinavian art, to a more subtle, sublimated influence in Slavic art. This difference was determined by the unique historical and cultural conditions of each region, demonstrating the diverse ways in which folk tradition found its place in the grand visual narrative of the Middle Ages.

Ultimately, folklore was more than just a source of subject matter for medieval art. It was a living force that shaped its language, enriched its symbolism, and ensured its connection with broad segments of the population. From majestic cathedrals to the humble margins of manuscripts, from heroic epics to amusing fables, folklore permeated the visual culture of the era, creating a complex and dynamic fabric in which faith, myth, and everyday life were intertwined.