The physical structure of wood and the choice of material for creativity Automatic translate

Understanding the structure of wood is fundamental for a woodcarver. Wood is not simply a homogeneous mass, but a complex system of tubular cells. These cells, or tracheids, conduct water and nutrients from the roots to the crown. For a woodcarver, the direction of these fibers determines the cutting strategy. Cutting along the grain produces a smooth, separating action. Cutting across or at an angle requires cutting through the cell walls, which creates resistance.

Hardwoods are most often chosen for spoons and trays. Conifers contain resin, which can impart flavor to food, and their grain is often characterized by a sharp transition between earlywood and latewood, creating an uneven density. Hardwoods are classified as ring-vascular or diffuse-vascular.

Ring-vascular woods, such as oak or ash, have large pores in their early wood. These pores can accumulate food particles and moisture, making them less hygienic for cutlery without special stabilization. Diffuse-vascular woods have a uniform grain structure. These include birch, maple, linden, aspen, alder, as well as fruit trees such as cherry, apple, pear, and plum.

Birch is considered the standard for both beginner and experienced craftsmen in northern latitudes. It has moderate hardness, uniformity, and a neutral odor. Fruit tree wood is denser and harder. It polishes to a mirror finish and has a distinct texture, but is prone to cracking during drying. Walnut is prized for its deep dark color and ease of workability, despite its hardness.

Material moisture and working with raw wood

Traditional spoon-making techniques rely on working with freshly cut, or "green," wood. Wet wood cuts significantly easier. The water filling the cell walls acts as a lubricant and makes the lignin more flexible. This allows for thick shavings to be removed with less effort and reduces wear on the tool’s cutting edge.

Working with dry wood requires a different approach, often involving power tools or chisel hammers. Dry wood is harder, and its fibers are brittle. Hand carving on dry wood increases the risk of chipping. Green wood produces a clean, glossy cut right from the knife, requiring no sanding.

The main challenge when working with raw material is monitoring the drying of the finished product. Moisture loss causes shrinkage. Wood shrinks unevenly: tangential shrinkage (along the annual rings) is approximately twice as great as radial shrinkage (from the center to the bark). This difference creates internal stresses that can cause the product to break. The craftsman must consider the orientation of the annual rings when marking the workpiece to minimize deformation.

Carver’s tools

The arsenal for making spoons and trays differs from that of a cabinetmaker. Here, free-motion tools predominate, not tied to a workbench or vise.

Axe

An axe is the primary tool for rough material removal. Specialized carpentry or carving axes are used for carving. They differ from splitting axes in the blade geometry and sharpening. The head typically weighs between 400 and 800 grams. A heavier axe can tire the hand during fine work.

The blade of a carver’s axe has a straight or slightly curved cutting edge, 80–120 mm long. The bevels are sharpened at an angle of 25–30 degrees. An important feature is the cutout under the handle, which allows the handle to be gripped directly at the head of the axe. This grip provides the control necessary for cleaving and fine cutting. The handle is curved for ergonomics.

Carving knife (sloyd)

The basic knife, often called a "sloyd" (from the Swedish slöjd, meaning craft), has a fixed blade between 50 and 90 mm long. A short blade provides better leverage and control. The blade is made of carbon or laminated steel. Carbon steel is easier to sharpen to a razor-sharp edge but corrodes more quickly in a humid environment.

A characteristic feature of woodworking knives is the Scandinavian bevel. These are straight bevels running from the middle or third of the blade’s width directly to the cutting edge, without creating a secondary micro-bevel. This geometry allows the knife to rest on the bevel during cutting, controlling the depth of chip removal. The bevel acts as a guide.

Spoon cutter (hook cutter)

A spoon cutter is used to hollow out a spoon scoop or create small containers. This is a knife with a blade curved into a ring or semicircle. Models are available with single- or double-sided sharpening. The radius of curvature determines the shape of the hollow: flat spoon cutters are used for finishing, while steeply curved ones are used for quick removal of mass.

Adze and crucibles

When making trays, bowls, and troughs, an axe and knife are insufficient for removing large volumes of wood. An adze is a tool resembling a hoe, with the blade positioned perpendicular to the handle. The blade is curved. An adze is used by striking it toward oneself, removing material from a hollow.

Chisels are chisels with a curved shaft and a profiled blade. The curved neck allows the tool to penetrate deep recesses without the handle resting against the edge of the workpiece. For manual work, power techniques are often used without a mallet, relying on body weight.

Material preparation: from log to loaf

The process begins with sawing the log into pieces of the required length. Each piece should be 2-5 cm longer than the final piece to allow for end cracks.

Splitting (batonig)

To obtain the blank, the log is split rather than sawed lengthwise. Sawing cuts the grain, ignoring its natural direction. Splitting, on the other hand, follows the grain. This ensures that the fibers in the finished product run continuously from one end to the other, ensuring maximum strength.

The log is split in half through the core, then into quarters. The core is removed from the resulting sectors, as this is the most unstable part of the trunk, prone to cracking. The bark is also removed. The resulting piece is called a "baklusha."

Orientation of the product in the workpiece

The position of the spoon inside the baklusha affects its appearance and behavior during drying.

• Radial cut: The spoon’s surface is perpendicular to the annual rings. The pattern is parallel lines. This type of spoon is the most stable and warps less.
• Tangential cut: The spoon’s surface is parallel to the annual rings. A beautiful pattern of arches and streaks is visible on the surface. However, such pieces are more prone to bowing as they dry.

The spoon’s curve (profile) is also planned at this stage. Craftsmen often use the natural curves of branches or knots to create a strong spoon with a deep scoop, where the grain follows the curve. Cutting a curved spoon from a straight board cuts the grain at the transition from the handle to the scoop, creating a weak spot (short grain).

Shaping a profile with an axe

The axe is the fastest tool for removing excess material. The work is done on a block. Safety is paramount here. The feet are placed wide, and the blows are delivered so that if the blow misses or bounces off, the blade will hit the block, not the leg.

1. Creating planes: The convex side of the spoon is shaved off, creating a plane for the top of the spoon. The sides are then smoothed. The piece takes on a rectangular cross-section.
2. Profile (side view): Notches (stop cuts) are made at the depth of the future transition between the handle and scoop. The material is chipped in the direction of these notches. The bend of the neck is formed.
3. Plan (top view): The workpiece is rotated 90 degrees. The handle width and shape of the scoop are marked. Excess is trimmed off with gentle blows.

During the axe-cutting stage, the rough geometry is formed. An allowance of approximately 2–3 mm is left for the knife-cutting. Good axe-cutting saves hours of knife-cutting.

Knife carving: strong and fine grips

After the axe, the workpiece moves into the hands. The use of a vise is rare in traditional spoon carving. The workpiece is held in one hand, and the knife in the other. Numerous specific grips are used, engaging the back and shoulder muscles, not just the forearms, preventing fatigue.

Power Grip (Chest Lever Grip)

One of the most powerful and safe grips. The arms are pressed against the chest, elbows flared. The knife is held with an underhand grip (the blade facing outward). The cut is made by squeezing the shoulder blades together and flaring the elbows. The blade moves from the center of the chest outward. This method allows for long, powerful shavings using the large back muscles. Blade control is maximized here, as the range of motion is limited by the anatomy.

Scissor Grip

Используется для тонкой обработки и сглаживания неровностей. Руки работают подобно ножницам: предплечья прижаты к бокам, кисти совершают встречное движение. Этот хват обеспечивает высокую точность и силу на короткой дистанции.

Хват с упором большим пальцем (Thumb Push Grip)

Большой палец руки, удерживающей заготовку (или самой руки с ножом, упираясь в тыльник рукояти), толкает обух ножа. Это позволяет делать короткие, контролируемые резы, особенно при обработке сложных кривых или торцов.

Выборка углубления

Вырезание чаши (черпала) производится ложкорезом. Этот процесс можно выполнять как до окончательного оформления внешней формы, так и после. Работа по сырой древесине здесь особенно важна, так как резать поперёк волокон внутри углубления сухой заготовки крайне тяжело.

Рез начинается от краёв к центру, по спирали вглубь. Необходимо постоянно следить за направлением волокон. В углублении волокна меняют направление на противоположное при переходе через дно. Рез “против шерсти” приведёт к задирам и вырывам. Мастер должен менять направление реза или разворачивать заготовку, чтобы всегда резать “по шерсти”, приглаживая волокна.

Особое внимание уделяется толщине стенок. Опытный резчик определяет толщину тактильно, пальцами. Стенки должны быть равномерными. Тонкие стенки сохнут быстрее и равномернее, что снижает риск трещин. Дно обычно оставляют чуть толще для прочности.

Технология сушки

После завершения основной резьбы изделие всё ещё содержит много влаги. Если оставить ложку в теплом сухом помещении, поверхностные слои высохнут и сожмутся быстрее внутренних. Это приведёт к напряжению и разрыву (трещинам).

Процесс сушки необходимо замедлить.

• Метод стружки: Ложку помещают в бумажный пакет вместе с её же собственной стружкой. Стружка создаёт микроклимат, удерживая влажность вокруг изделия и позволяя ей снижаться плавно.
• Холод: Помещение изделий в прохладное место также замедляет испарение.
• Периодическое проветривание: Изделия вынимают из пакета раз в день для проверки и перетряхивания стружки.

Сушка занимает от нескольких дней до пары недель в зависимости от толщины изделия и породы дерева. Готовность определяется по весу (ложка перестаёт терять вес) и по звуку (сухое дерево звонче при постукивании) и теплоте (сухое дерево ощущается тёплым, влажное — холодным из-за испарения).

Чистовая отделка: нож против абразива

В массовом производстве деревянные изделия шлифуются наждачной бумагой. В ручной работе высшего класса предпочтение отдаётся чистовому резу ножом (knife finish).

Недостатки шлифовки

Абразив разрывает волокна древесины, превращая поверхность в микроскопический ворс. Мелкая пыль забивает поры. При намокании такой ворс поднимается, и ложка становится шершавой. Кроме того, шлифовка сглаживает грани, делая форму “мыльной” и невыразительной. Визуально шлифованная поверхность выглядит матовой, так как свет рассеивается на повреждённых волокнах.

Преимущества среза

A sharp knife cuts away the cells, leaving them open and smooth. The surface is dense and shiny. The knife’s facets create a play of light and shadow, highlighting the shape. This surface absorbs less moisture and dirt. It feels more pleasant to the touch and feels warmer.

To achieve a perfect finish, the tool must be polished to a mirror-like sharpness using a leather strop and polishing paste. This process removes extremely fine, almost transparent shavings. This step is called "finishing cuts."

Cycling

For wide surfaces (trays, large dishes) where it’s difficult to go over the entire surface with a knife without leaving a mark, scrapers are used. A scraper is a steel plate with a burr on the edge. It removes a fine shaving rather than dust, leaving the surface smooth, like a plane.

Making Trays and Bowls: Features of Chiselling

When creating larger items, such as trays or kuksa (traditional Scandinavian mugs), the scale of material removal changes.

The blank is often half a log or a burl (a growth on a tree with interwoven grain). Burl possesses incredible strength and a beautiful texture, but is difficult to process due to the random grain pattern.

1. Clamping: Unlike spoons, large workpieces often require clamping. A block with wedges or special benches are used.
2. Adze work: The craftsman stands over the workpiece and uses rhythmic strokes of the adze to select the center. It’s important to leave sufficient wall thickness during the raw finishing stage, as larger pieces will warp more during drying.
3. Chisel work: Use chisels to smooth the sides and bottom. Work from the edge to the center of the bottom.

Drying large items requires special care. The ends of the workpiece are often coated with PVA glue or a special emulsion to prevent rapid moisture evaporation through the capillaries. Moisture should escape through the sides.

Decoration and functional details

Kolrosing

A traditional Scandinavian decorative technique. A thin incision is made into the surface of the finished piece with the tip of a knife. A dark powder (willow bark, ground coffee, or charcoal dust) is then rubbed into the incision. The powder becomes trapped in the incision and can be wiped off from the smooth surface. Oil is then applied to fix the pigment. The result is a fine, precise graphic that does not disturb the smooth surface.

Chip carving (geometric carving)

Cutting triangles and other geometric shapes into the handle of a spoon or the edge of a tray creates relief and play of light.

Painting

Natural paints are used, such as milk paint (casein paint). It penetrates deeply into the wood without leaving a film that could peel off. Often, only the handle of a spoon or the outside of a bowl is painted, leaving the work surfaces bare.

Finishing and protection

Wood must be protected from moisture, grease, and odors. Only polymerizing oils are used for tableware.

Oils

• Linseed oil: The most traditional option. Raw linseed oil takes a long time to dry (weeks), but deeply penetrates the wood. Cooked oil (linseed oil) dries faster but often contains chemical siccatives unsuitable for food-grade utensils. Heat-treated linseed oil without additives is used.
• Tung oil: Extracted from the nuts of the tung tree, it creates a very durable and waterproof finish. Often used in mixtures.
• Walnut oil: One of the few store-bought edible oils that polymerizes. However, it may cause allergies in people with nut intolerance.

Do not use sunflower or olive oil. They do not dry (do not polymerize) and instead cause rancidity within the wood, imparting an unpleasant odor and taste to the product.

Polymerization process

Apply the oil generously, removing any excess after 15-20 minutes. When exposed to atmospheric oxygen, the oil molecules crosslink into a polymer network. This process is exothermic (generates heat), so oil-soaked rags must be disposed of carefully to prevent spontaneous combustion. Complete polymerization can take anywhere from several days to a month. Direct sunlight (ultraviolet light) accelerates this process.

To increase water resistance, the oil is often mixed with beeswax. The wax fills the pores and creates a surface film. The mixture is heated in a double boiler and applied hot.

Biomechanics and ergonomics

Designing a spoon is an engineering challenge.

• Crank Angle: The spoon shouldn’t be flat. The crank should be angled toward the handle to make it easier to scoop food from a deep bowl.
• Ladle shape: For soup, a round, deep ladle is best. For porridge, a flatter, wider ladle is best.
• Handle section: A round handle rotates in your fingers. A faceted (polygonal, diamond-shaped) or oval handle provides tactile feedback, allowing you to intuitively feel the position of the scoop.

Making wooden utensils is a balance between aesthetics, functionality, and an understanding of the physics of the material. Every stroke of the knife, every choice of cutting direction, influences the durability and usability of the item.

Defects and repairs

Wood is a living material, and defects are inevitable. Knots, grain, and bark pockets can become exposed during the work process.

• Knots: If a knot is located in a non-critical spot (on the handle, but not in the neck), it can be used as a decorative element. A knot is harder than the surrounding wood and must be cut with a very sharp tool to prevent it from splintering. If a knot falls out, creating a hole, the piece is usually rejected.
• Cracks: Small cracks that occur during drying can be stabilized with cyanoacrylate glue (superglue) mixed with wood dust. However, traditional craftsmen try to avoid chemicals.
• Warping: If a spoon has warped while drying, it’s difficult to fix. Sometimes re-wetting and holding it in place until it dries helps, but the wood’s "memory" can cause the warping to return.

Instrument care

Maintaining razor sharpness is part of the daily routine. A carver spends up to 20% of their time sharpening and stropping their tools.

• Stropping: Every 15-20 minutes of work, the knife is stropped on a leather strop glued to a board. Polishing paste (GOI, Dialux) is applied to the leather. This smooths the cutting edge at the micro-level, removing burrs.
• Sharpening: If the blade becomes dull or chipped, use water stones of varying grit (from 800 to 6000 and above) or diamond plates. It’s important to maintain a flat bevel and avoid tilting the lens unless the knife’s design allows for this.

The inner surface of spoon cutters and adzes is sharpened using sandpaper wrapped around wooden cylinders of different diameters, or with profile stones.

Environmental aspects and waste disposal

The production of wooden spoons and trays is virtually waste-free.

• Wood chips and shavings: Used for kindling, mulching garden soil, animal bedding, or smoking food.
• Trimmings: Used to make small items (buttons, beads, wedges) or for firewood.

Wooden utensils are biodegradable. At the end of their useful life (which, with proper care, can last for decades), they simply return to the natural cycle, leaving no plastic trace.

Features of wood species for different purposes

Different tasks require different properties of wood.

• Roasting paddles: Use wood that is resistant to high temperatures and does not release resin. Beech, maple.
• Ladles: Requires bending strength in a thin neck. Rowan, lilac, apple.
• Trays: Lightness and stability are important. Basswood, alder, aspen, and poplar are all lighter than oak or maple, which is important for a large tray.
• Kuksy (mugs): Traditionally made from birch bark. The interwoven fibers prevent splitting from impacts and changes in humidity.

The choice of material is always a compromise between availability, ease of processing, and performance properties. The craftsman learns to "read" wood, anticipating how a particular piece will behave in the finished product.

The role of temperature and workshop conditions

Working with green wood requires specific climatic conditions. In an overly dry and hot environment, wood blanks begin to crack in your hands while you work. The ideal environment is a cool, slightly damp room or working outdoors in the shade. In winter, woodworkers often store wood blanks outside or in an unheated shed, bringing in only the amount needed for the day. Frozen wood cuts beautifully, but requires thawing the top layer. Some woodworkers cut directly into frozen wood — the cut is exceptionally clean, but the risk of chipping the tool steel increases due to the brittleness of the metal in the cold.

Cutting edge characteristics (microgeometry)

For different types of wood, carvers can vary the sharpening angle.

• For soft woods (linden, aspen), the angle can be sharper (20–23 degrees). This provides an easier cut, but the edge is less durable.
• For hardwoods (oak, dried apple), the angle is made more obtuse (25–30 degrees) or a micro-bevel is added — a tiny chamfer on the very edge at a steeper angle. This strengthens the blade and prevents chipping.

Understanding microgeometry allows you to adapt the same knife to different tasks, managing the balance between cutting aggressiveness and tool durability.

Surface texturing

In addition to smooth cuts, textured surfaces are popular.

• Faceted surface: Leaves distinct knife marks, demonstrating handcrafted craftsmanship and adding a pleasant tactile feel.
• Chisel/Grooved Texture: The outside of bowls are often etched with rhythmic indentations from a semicircular chisel. This improves grip and hides potential future scratches.

Creating a rhythmic, beautiful texture requires a steady hand. Random cuts look untidy, while orderly rows of facets create a pattern reminiscent of fish scales or honeycombs.