Ancient Blacksmithing Technologies:
From Hammer to Sword Automatic translate

Blacksmithing is one of the oldest crafts of mankind. For thousands of years, people have perfected metalworking techniques, turning simple nuggets into complex and elegant products, changing the course of history.

The development of metalworking is closely linked to the evolution of human civilizations and reflects technical progress from primitive stone tools to complex metal structures and weapons. Archaeological finds allow us to trace the long path from the first metal objects to highly developed technologies for the production of weapons and tools.

The Origins of Metalworking

The earliest evidence of metalworking dates back to ancient times. Archaeological finds indicate that the first experiments with metals began around 8700 BC in what is now Iraq, where a copper pendant was discovered. However, people already knew and used individual metals that occur in nature in pure form long before the development of metallurgy.

Gold can be called the first metal that man began to process. Its special properties - malability and plasticity - allowed working with it without complex technologies, using only a stone hammer and the surface as an anvil. Native gold did not require smelting, it was already in a ready-to-process form.

The first metals to be processed also included native copper, silver, and meteoric iron. They were rare, so items made from them were initially primarily decorative and symbolized the high status of the owner. The oldest gold items discovered by archaeologists were made about 8,000 years ago.

Early Native Metals

The first metals that man worked with were found in nature in a relatively pure form - these are the so-called native metals. Among them, gold, silver, copper and meteoric iron occupied a special place.

Gold was found in the form of small nuggets in river sediments. Its bright color and shine attracted the attention of ancient people. Due to its softness, gold was easy to process even without heating and without the use of complex tools.

Copper also occurred naturally, although less frequently than gold. Copper deposits were discovered in many regions of the world, including the Middle East, North Africa, Europe, and the Americas. The oldest copper objects date back to about 8700 BC.

Meteorite iron was a rare and valuable material for ancient civilizations. It came to Earth with meteorites and contained significant amounts of nickel, making it harder and more durable than regular iron. Finds of meteorite iron items are often associated with ritual and ceremonial contexts, indicating the special status of this metal in ancient societies.

The first processing technologies

The earliest metalworking techniques were primitive but effective. They involved cold forging, chipping, grinding, and polishing. These techniques allowed pieces of native metal to be transformed into jewelry, simple tools, and ritual objects.

Cold forging involved repeatedly striking the metal to shape it into the desired form. However, cold forging made the metal harder and more brittle, a process known as work hardening. To continue working, it had to be heated, restoring its ductility. This cycle of cold forging, then heating, was used, for example, in copper working in the Lake Michigan area around 4000-5000 BCE.

As technology developed, people mastered hot forging – the processing of heated metal, which became more ductile. This method required the creation of special furnaces or forges capable of reaching high temperatures, and the use of protective devices for working with hot metal.

An important step was the discovery of a process for reducing metals from ores using fire, a technique known as smelting or smelting. This process greatly increased the availability of metals, especially copper, tin, and lead, which were rare in their pure form but were present in various minerals.

Copper and Bronze Ages

The transition from stone tools to metal ones was a revolutionary change in human history. Copper was the first metal to be widely used to make tools and weapons. However, pure copper had a significant drawback – it was too soft and quickly became dull.

A real breakthrough was the discovery of bronze, an alloy of copper and tin with much better mechanical properties. Bronze was harder, stronger, and held an edge better, making it an ideal material for making weapons, tools, and other equipment.

The period when bronze became the primary material for making tools and weapons is known as the Bronze Age. It began around 3300-3000 BC in the Middle East and southeastern Europe and lasted until the advent of iron technology, around 1200-1000 BC.

Copper processing techniques

Copper was the first metal that humans learned to systematically mine and process in large quantities. The process began with the extraction of copper ore from mines or opencasts. The ore was then crushed and placed in a furnace for smelting.

Smelting copper required temperatures of about 1090°C (2000°F). At this temperature, the copper melted and separated from the surrounding rock. If other metals with lower melting points were present in the ore, they were smelted first, allowing ancient metallurgists to separate the various metals and determine their properties and uses.

Once smelted, copper was purified and formed into ingots or blanks for further processing. The metal could be forged cold, but it had to be heated to be seriously deformed. Bronze Age smiths learned to work with copper using a variety of shaping techniques, including hammering, casting, and beating.

Copper items were very diverse: from simple jewelry and needles to axes, chisels and other tools. However, due to the softness of the metal, they quickly wore out and required frequent sharpening or replacement.

The discovery of bronze and its properties

One of the most important discoveries in metallurgy was the creation of an alloy of copper and tin – bronze. This happened around 4500 BC. Bronze had a number of advantages over pure copper: it was harder, stronger, and retained its shape better under mechanical influences.

The process of producing bronze required precise proportions of the components. The optimal tin content in bronze was about 10-12%. With a higher tin content, for example, in Chinese bronze swords, reaching 20%, the products became harder, but also more fragile.

The production of bronze began with the smelting of copper and tin separately. The metals were then mixed in a certain proportion in a crucible - a special vessel made of fireproof material. The crucible was placed in a furnace, where the temperature was maintained sufficient to melt both metals.

Once melted, the mass was stirred to distribute the components evenly, then heated again. When the alloy was ready, it was poured into molds, a process known as casting. The molds could be made of stone, clay, or sand, allowing for the creation of items of varying complexity and with a high level of detail.

Bronze Age Tools and Artifacts

The Bronze Age saw the emergence of a wide range of tools and products, from household items to weapons. Among the most common were:

1. Weapons: swords, daggers, spearheads, axes. Bronze swords first appeared in the Black Sea and Aegean Sea regions in the 17th century BC.
2. Tools: axes, chisels, saws, needles, awls.
3. Household items: boilers, bowls, mirrors, razors.
4. Jewelry: bracelets, rings, brooches (ancient clasps), necklaces.
5. Ritual objects: figurines, sacrificial knives, ceremonial vessels.

Bronze casting technology made it possible to create complex shapes that would have been difficult or impossible to make from stone or wood. As a result, Bronze Age artifacts are often distinguished by their high artistic level and meticulous execution.

Particularly renowned for its durability is the bronze sword of Goujian, discovered in China. Dating back to the Spring and Autumn period (771-476 BC), this sword retained its sharpness and showed no signs of corrosion despite being buried for over 2,000 years.

Development of iron metallurgy

The transition from bronze to iron was one of the most significant technological shifts in human history. Iron was stronger and more accessible than bronze, which led to revolutionary changes in many aspects of life, especially agriculture and warfare.

The Iron Age began at different times in different parts of the world. In the Middle East and Asia Minor, the transition to iron occurred around 1200-1000 BC. In Europe, the process began later, around 800-600 BC, and in some parts of Africa, Asia, and the Americas, the Iron Age arrived even later.

The technology for producing iron was more complex than that for smelting copper or bronze. Iron has a higher melting point (1538°C), which was difficult to achieve in early furnaces. Therefore, iron was initially obtained not as a liquid metal, but as a solid spongy mass, which was then forged to remove slag and compact the metal.

The emergence of the Iron Age

Although traces of iron processing can be found as early as the Bronze Age, the widespread use of this metal occurred much later. Blacksmithing, based on forging iron, probably originated in Syria around 1500 BC. It is believed that it was first developed by the European Hittites, an ancient Anatolian people who created an empire in what is now Turkey and Syria.

In India, ironworking began around 1800 BC. The ancient Romans recognized India as a country of iron experts, far ahead of Europe. In sub-Saharan Africa, steelmaking developed from around 1400 BC, with local craftsmen building furnaces that could reach temperatures higher than those achieved in Europe during the Industrial Revolution.

Initially, iron products had no clear advantages over bronze. It took about 500 years before iron weapons became preferable to bronze ones. Early iron products were often agricultural tools – sickles, axes, and fasteners such as nails.

Blast furnace technology

The main method of obtaining iron in ancient times was the so-called bloomery process, carried out in special furnaces - blast furnaces. The blast furnace was a shaft furnace made of refractory material - earth, clay or stone.

At the bottom of the furnace there were one or more tubes (tuyères) through which air entered the furnace – either naturally or with the help of bellows or another pumping device. At the bottom of the blast furnace there could be an opening for extracting the finished product – bloom.

Before using the blast furnace, it was necessary to prepare the coal and iron ore. Coal, which was almost pure carbon, provided both the high temperature required for the smelting process and the carbon monoxide required to reduce the metal from its oxides when burned.

The ore was crushed into small pieces and usually roasted in a fire to make it more brittle and remove some impurities and moisture. The particle size of the ore depended on its type and the design of the furnace.

Cheese-making process

The process of making iron in a blast furnace, known as the bloomery process, was quite labor-intensive and required a certain amount of skill. It began with loading charcoal and iron ore into the furnace. The coal was then ignited and air was pumped in using bellows to raise the temperature.

Unlike modern blast furnaces, ancient blast furnaces could not reach the melting point of iron (1538°C). Instead, at a temperature of about 1200°C, iron was reduced from ore oxides. The iron did not melt, but formed a spongy mass mixed with slag - the so-called bloom.

The bloomery was a porous mass of metal and slag that was removed from the furnace and then repeatedly forged to remove the slag and compact the metal. This process was physically difficult and required considerable effort. Repeated forging and heating of the bloomery produced bloomery iron, a material that could be used to make various products.

The iron obtained in this way contained different amounts of carbon. With a low carbon content (less than 0.2%), soft wrought iron was obtained, with an average (0.3-0.7%) - harder low-carbon steel, and with a high (more than 2%) - cast iron, which was brittle and was used mainly for casting.

The evolution of ancient blacksmith tools

Hammers

The hammer is the basic and oldest tool in the blacksmith’s arsenal. The evolution of the hammer began long before the advent of metallurgy. The first hammers were round stones that were held in the hand. Gradually, the shape of these primitive tools changed - stones with a notch in the middle for better grip appeared.

The next important step was to attach the stone to the handle. At first, a flexible willow rod was used for this, later they began to make holes in the stones for a secure attachment of the wooden handle. This design significantly increased the efficiency of the work.

With the advent of metallurgy, the hammers themselves began to be made of metal. They were divided into two categories by weight: hand hammers weighing up to 1 kg for precision work and sledgehammers weighing over 1 kg for rough work. Metal hammers often had welded steel heads to increase strength.

By the end of the 18th century, mechanical hammers powered by a water wheel began to be used in blacksmithing, and later, steam and hydraulic devices. This significantly eased the heavy physical labor of blacksmiths and expanded the possibilities of metal processing.

Anvils and auxiliary tools

The anvil served as a solid support when forging items. Old Russian written sources of the 11th century often mention this tool. Archaeological finds show that anvils were divided into two main types: rectangular and with a rectangular working platform. They were massive metal stands weighing more than 8 kg.

In addition to hammers and anvils, the blacksmith’s arsenal included:

• Pliers of various shapes and sizes for holding hot metal
• Chisels for cutting metal
• Punching pins
• Nailers for making nails
• Crimping tools for shaping products
• Undercuts and pads for working with curved surfaces
• Stamps for creating repeating elements
• Finishing files

Specialized blacksmiths who performed complex work had a wider range of tools, including vices and grindstones for sharpening.

Furnaces and blowers

The forge is the basis of the forge workshop, it was a brazier on a stone or clay elevation. The forge had a recess for coals and heated metal. To enhance combustion and achieve high temperatures (up to 1400-1460°C when welding iron), air blowers were used.

The design of the forge remained relatively simple for centuries. Comparison of archaeological finds with ethnographic data shows that even in the 19th century some blacksmiths used forges that were structurally no different from ancient models.

Bellows played an important role in pumping air. The blacksmith pressed the lever, feeding air to the coals through fireproof nozzles - special tubes made of clay with an admixture of sand. The nozzles quickly burned out and required frequent replacement.

The fuel for the furnace was most often charcoal, which ensured stable combustion and high temperatures without foreign impurities that could spoil the metal.

Metalworking techniques

Forging metal in ancient times

Forging is the oldest method of metal processing, existing, according to various sources, from 6 to 9 thousand years. Archaeological research confirms that cold and hot forging were used in Iran, Mesopotamia and Egypt as early as the 4th-3rd millennia BC.

The very first items created by hand forging were mainly objects of protection from enemies and predators, as well as decorations. Ancient craftsmen of Europe, Asia and Africa forged raw iron, copper, silver and gold.

Forging as a metalworking technique was particularly developed in the 10th-13th centuries. By this time, craftsmen had already learned to forge durable multilayer swords and axes with hardened steel blades, as well as various household items, tools and craft devices.

The main forging operations included:

• Crimping of the dies – compaction and welding of metal particles, removal of slag
• Drawing - increasing the length of the workpiece by reducing its cross-section
• Upsetting is a reduction in the height of a workpiece with a simultaneous increase in its cross-section.
• Punching - creating holes
• Bending – giving a workpiece a curved shape
• Chopping - dividing metal into parts
• Welding – joining several pieces of metal into one whole

Cold and hot forging

In ancient times, two main forging methods were used: cold and hot. Cold forging was used to work with soft metals - gold, silver and copper. This method made it possible to create products without the use of high temperatures, but had limitations due to the phenomenon of work hardening - an increase in the hardness and brittleness of the metal during deformation.

Hot forging involved heating metal to a high temperature, making it more ductile and malleable. This method was used to work iron and steel, as well as to create complex shapes from copper and bronze.

The process of hot forging bronze included several stages:

1. Heating a metal to a high temperature above the critical point
2. Shaping - using hammers, anvils and presses to create the desired shape
3. Heat treatment – ​​heating and cooling to give strength and corrosion resistance
4. Patination is the application of special compounds to protect and give a certain appearance.

As technology developed, forging methods also improved. The gradual change in tools and techniques led to the transformation of handicraft blacksmithing into a separate industry.

Bronze Age Swords

Origin and development of the bronze sword

The first swords appeared in the Bronze Age as an evolutionary development of the dagger. Archaeological finds indicate that bronze swords first appeared around the 17th century BC in the Black Sea and Aegean regions.

Before the advent of bronze, the main materials for cutting tools and weapons were stone (flint, obsidian). However, due to the fragility of stone, creating long blades was impractical. With the discovery of copper and then bronze, it became possible to make daggers with a longer blade, which eventually led to the emergence of a new class of weapon - the sword.

The first bronze swords were based on the knives of Minoan Crete and Celtic Britain. Early examples of swords over 100 cm long were made around 1700 BC, presumably in the Aegean region.

Typical Bronze Age swords were between 60 and 80 cm long. Weapons shorter than 60 cm were classified in different ways – sometimes as short swords, sometimes as daggers. The beginning of sword production in China dates back to the Shang Dynasty (from about 1200 BC).

Technology of making bronze swords

The technology for making bronze swords involved a combination of casting and forging techniques. The process began with the selection of a suitable alloy. Bronze is an alloy of copper with tin or other metals, which has superior mechanical properties compared to pure copper.

Sword production began with the creation of detailed drawings and a model. Then a mold was prepared for casting the blade blank. Ancient craftsmen used various casting techniques:

1. Open mold or sand casting
2. Casting into moulds with a lid
3. Casting in split molds
4. Lost wax casting for creating complex parts

After casting the sword blank, it was carefully processed - forged, sharpened, polished. Many ancient swords had rich inlays of silver and other metals, which indicates the high level of skill of the gunsmiths of that time.

An interesting example of the durability of bronze weapons is the Goujian sword from China, which has retained its sharpness and has not corroded after lying in the ground for over 2,000 years.

Combat use of bronze swords

Experimental archaeology is helping to understand how ancient bronze swords were used in combat. Research shows that Bronze Age warriors avoided sharp blows that could damage the soft bronze blades. Instead, they favored a technique called crossing swords.

A team of archaeologists from the UK, Germany and China conducted experiments with exact replicas of seven ancient swords. Experienced swordsmen struck various materials with their swords – wooden, leather and bronze shields. The researchers analyzed the marks on the blades and compared them with wear marks on surviving archaeological finds.

As a result, the origin of 14 types of characteristic dents and nicks found on ancient swords was established. Analysis of the location of these marks showed that towards the end of the Bronze Age they began to be more closely grouped along the length of the blades. This indicates the development of martial arts – swordsmen learned to deliver more precise blows.

Bronze swords remained a common weapon in Europe until the 5th century BC, when a gradual transition to iron weapons began. However, the complete displacement of bronze weapons by iron weapons was completed only with the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century AD.

Iron weapons and the evolution of blacksmithing

The appearance of the first iron swords

The transition from bronze to iron swords was a gradual process that took several centuries. Iron had significant advantages over bronze – greater availability of raw materials and potentially better mechanical properties. However, the technology for processing iron was more complex, requiring higher temperatures and special skills.

The first iron swords were rather experimental and had no obvious advantages over bronze. It took about 500 years of technological improvement before iron weapons became preferable to bronze ones.

An important technological achievement was the discovery of the bloomery process, which made it possible to obtain blooms from iron ore - spongy masses of iron with an admixture of slag. By repeatedly forging and heating the bloom, blacksmiths removed the slag and compacted the metal, obtaining bloomery iron for the manufacture of various products.

Blade Improvement Technologies

During the evolution of blacksmithing, masters discovered many techniques that allowed them to improve the quality of iron blades:

1. Cementation – saturation of the surface layer of iron with carbon to increase hardness
2. Quenching - heating followed by rapid cooling to increase hardness
3. Tempering is the process of heating hardened steel to a certain temperature to reduce brittleness.
4. Forge welding is the joining of layers of metal with different properties

Particularly prized were multilayer swords, which combined a hard but brittle blade with a flexible core. This design provided an optimal balance between the blade’s sharpness and its resistance to breakage.

By the 10th century, Rus’ and other regions already knew the secrets of creating patterned steel – the prototype of future Damascus. This indicates a high level of development of blacksmithing skills.

Comparison of bronze and iron weapons

Bronze and iron weapons had their advantages and disadvantages. Bronze was inferior to iron in hardness, but had similar strength and was superior in corrosion resistance. Steel swords and armor rusted, while bronze ones were covered with a stable oxide film - patina.

Bronze was better suited for making breastplates, helmets, and complex geometric blades. Iron, being more ductile, was easier to turn into wire, making it the preferred material for chainmail. That is why the most ancient plate armor was bronze, and the most ancient chainmail was iron.

An important factor in the transition from bronze to iron was the availability of raw materials. The materials for producing iron – iron ore and charcoal – were widely distributed throughout most of Europe. At the same time, tin, needed to make bronze, was mined in only a few regions.

Regional features of blacksmithing

Blacksmithing of the Ancient East

The Middle East and Egypt are considered the cradle of metallurgy. The first technologies for high-quality iron processing emerged here – blast furnaces, production of high-carbon steels and damask blades.

In ancient Egypt, blacksmiths worked with copper, bronze and, later, iron. Iron was initially valued more than gold because of its rarity. Forging was considered a sacred art, a symbol of divine power.

In the Middle East and Persia, craftsmen created blades that were famous throughout the world for their quality and unusual structure. Knowledge and technology from the East later penetrated into Europe and Rus’ through trade routes and military campaigns.

In India, ironworking began around 1800 BC. The ancient Romans recognized India as a country of iron experts who were far ahead of European masters. In sub-Saharan Africa, steelmaking developed from around 1400 BC, with local craftsmen creating furnaces capable of reaching very high temperatures.

Development of blacksmithing in Rus’

In Rus’, blacksmithing had a special significance. Blacksmiths were deeply respected, their work was considered sacred - in the popular imagination, they literally "brought life" to metal.

Already in the 1st millennium BC, the ancestors of the Slavs, who lived in the territory of Ancient Rus’, mastered the techniques of forging and heat treatment of metals. By the 10th century, Russian craftsmen knew the secrets of patterned steel - the prototypes of the future Damascus.

Blacksmithing was the first craft that required a specially equipped room, separated from the home. Archaeological finds show that already in the 4th-5th centuries AD, in the Volga-Oka interfluve, blacksmiths worked in special non-residential buildings - forges.

For fire safety reasons, forges were usually located on the outskirts of settlements, near the city rampart. They were equipped with a furnace and bellows.

Technical progress in blacksmithing

Over the centuries, blacksmithing gradually improved. An important stage was the mechanization of the forging process. At the beginning of the 16th century, blacksmith hammers with a drive from a water wheel appeared - mid-range and tail.

Recent archaeological finds in Britain indicate that water-powered forges were in existence as early as the 3rd and 4th centuries, suggesting that attempts to mechanize the heavy physical labor of blacksmiths were underway long before the Industrial Revolution.

At the end of the 18th century, rope and steam hammers, screw and hydraulic presses began to be used in forging production. Along with the emergence of new means of mechanization, the technology of manufacturing forgings was improved not only by forging methods, but also by hot stamping and even calibration.

Gradually, the handicraft blacksmithing turned into a separate production. In Russia, the first specialized factories appeared in Tula, Sestroretsk and Izhevsk, where weapons were initially manufactured, and later other products.

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Despite technological progress and the emergence of new methods of metal processing, traditional blacksmithing retains its importance. Many techniques and methods discovered by ancient masters are still used today, although with the use of modern materials and equipment.

The essence of forging has remained the same for thousands of years – it is work with “live” metal, requiring a special sense and understanding of its properties. Modern blacksmiths, like their ancient predecessors, strive to maintain a balance between artistic expressiveness and functionality of products.

The revival of interest in traditional crafts has led to a new flourishing of blacksmithing. Today, hand forging is valued especially highly for the uniqueness of each product, its individual character and quality, unattainable in mass production.