The philosophical foundation of the era and the rethinking of human nature Automatic translate

The European Enlightenment of the 18th century marked a radical break with traditional notions of knowledge transmission and personal development. The intellectual elite of the time rejected education as a means of saving the soul or memorizing church dogma. The belief in the limitless potential of the human mind and the capacity of society to improve through systematic education came to the fore. Thinkers began to view school not as an appendage of the church, but as a workshop where the well-being of the state and the happiness of the individual were forged.

A central element of the new educational paradigm was a reconsideration of views on the nature of the child. For a long time, the Western tradition was dominated by the concept of original sin, which required strict discipline and suppression of the child’s will. The Enlightenment challenged this postulate. They proposed the idea that humans are born with a predisposition toward goodness, or at least neutrality, and that it is the environment that shapes their moral and intellectual makeup.

John Locke’s Empiricism and the Blank Slate Theory

The English philosopher John Locke laid the cornerstone of the new pedagogy in his Thoughts Concerning Education, published in 1693. Locke rejected the theory of innate ideas, arguing that a child’s mind at birth is like a "tabula rasa" — a blank slate. This assertion had colossal social consequences. If character and intelligence are not given by God at birth, but are acquired through sensory experience and upbringing, then education can transform anyone, regardless of their background.

Locke insisted on the importance of physical development, putting forward the famous thesis "a sound mind in a sound body." He recommended physical fitness, a simple diet, and the avoidance of tight clothing, which ran counter to the aristocratic customs of the time. Education, according to Locke, should be utilitarian and prepare a gentleman for real life, not monastic debates. He criticized the pointless memorization of Latin and Greek, suggesting that more attention be paid to geography, arithmetic, astronomy, and history.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the concept of natural education

While Locke proposed a rational approach to shaping a gentleman, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in his novel-treaty "Émile, or On Education" (1762), brought about an emotional revolution. Rousseau argued that civilization corrupts man, and the educator’s task is to follow nature, not to break it. He proposed a periodization of child development, insisting that each age has its own characteristics of perception and thinking. Before the age of 12, Rousseau advised against imparting bookish knowledge, but rather to develop feelings and physical strength through interaction with the surrounding world.

Rousseau’s ideas sparked heated debate but forever changed attitudes toward childhood. Children were no longer viewed as "little adults." Educators began to recognize the need to adapt teaching methods to the student’s psychology. Rousseau emphasized the importance of manual labor, considering craftsmanship a necessary skill for maintaining independence in any society. His call to return children to nature inspired a whole generation of reformers in Germany and Switzerland.

Pedagogical philanthropy in the German states

The ideas of French and English thinkers found fertile ground in the German principalities, where the philanthropic movement arose. Its founder, Johann Bernhard Basedow, attempted to put the theories of Rousseau and Locke into practice by establishing a new type of educational institution in Dessau — the Philatropinum. This was an experimental school where learning was conducted through play, and corporal punishment was kept to a minimum.

Basedow developed a visual-based methodology. Instead of dry texts, he used pictures, models, and excursions. Students learned languages ​​through conversational practice rather than by memorizing grammar rules. Philanthropists introduced gymnastics into the curriculum as a mandatory subject, which became the forerunner of modern physical education in schools. The work of Basedow and his followers, such as Christian Salzmann and Joachim Campe, attracted attention throughout Europe. Their textbooks were translated into various languages, and their methods were copied in other countries.

School education reform in Prussia

Prussia became the first state to place education at the service of the state machine, making it compulsory and universal. Frederick II the Great, himself a "philosopher on the throne," understood that literate subjects were needed to manage a modern army and bureaucracy. In 1763, the "General Regulations for Rural Schools" was issued, enshrining the principle of compulsory education for all children aged 5 to 13-14.

The state assumed control over the curriculum and teacher training, relegating the church to the background. While religion remained an important part of the curriculum, the emphasis shifted to nurturing loyal and productive citizens. Teachers’ seminaries were established, which contributed to the professionalization of teaching. Teachers ceased to be random individuals — retired soldiers or artisans — and became civil servants with a specific set of competencies.

The Austrian Experiment of Maria Theresa and Joseph II

In the Habsburg Monarchy, educational reforms became even more systemic. Empress Maria Theresa, recognizing her empire’s lagging behind Prussia, invited Abbot Johann Ignaz von Felbiger to reorganize school affairs. In 1774, the "General School Statute" was adopted, which established three types of schools: trivial (elementary) schools in villages, main schools in district centers, and normal schools in provincial capitals for training teachers.

The Austrian reform was characterized by strict centralization and standardization. Standardized textbooks, approved by the state, were introduced. Felbiger’s method promoted collective teaching: the teacher worked with the entire class simultaneously, rather than with each student individually, which significantly increased the effectiveness of the process. Particular attention was paid to training teachers in "normal" schools (from the word "norma" — a model). This system became a model for many countries in Eastern Europe and the Russian Empire.

The Transformation of Universities and the Birth of Academic Freedom

Higher education also underwent radical changes under the influence of the Enlightenment. The old medieval universities, mired in scholasticism and theological controversies, lost their appeal. They were replaced by new types of universities, the first of which was the University of Halle, founded in 1694, followed by the University of Göttingen (1737).

At these institutions, Latin began to give way to German. Philosophy was freed from the role of theology and became an independent discipline, based on reason and critical analysis. Göttingen was the first to realize the principle of unity between research and teaching. Professors not only lectured on ancient texts but also conducted scholarly work, engaging students in it through seminars.

The concept of "academic freedom" (Lehrfreiheit and Lernfreiheit) emerged — the freedom of the professor to teach what they believe to be true, and the freedom of the student to choose his or her lectures. The library became the center of the university, displacing the classroom. The Göttingen Library, with its systematic catalog and policy of purchasing modern literature, became a model for the academic world. This shift transformed universities from repositories of dogma into engines of scientific progress.

The French Revolution and public education projects

In France, the ideas of the Enlightenment reached their apogee during the Revolution. Revolutionary leaders saw education as the primary tool for creating a new society and defending the republic from tyranny. The old college system, controlled by the church, was destroyed. In its place, they envisioned the creation of a unified state system of secular education.

The most radical and elaborate project was presented by Nicolas de Condorcet in 1792. He proposed a system of graded education accessible to all citizens, regardless of gender or income. Condorcet insisted on the complete independence of education from political authority and religion, believing that truth should not be subject to decree. Although the project was not fully implemented due to political instability and war, it laid the ideological foundations for the future French public education system: free, secular, and universal.

В этот период были созданы специализированные высшие школы, такие как Политехническая школа и Нормальная школа, ориентированные на подготовку инженеров, учёных и преподавателей для нужд государства. Наука и техника получили приоритет перед гуманитарными дисциплинами, что отражало потребности индустриализирующегося общества и армии.

Просвещение в Российской империи: сверху вниз

В России влияние Просвещения носило ярко выраженный государственный характер. Екатерина II, состоявшая в переписке с Вольтером и Дидро, рассматривала образование как способ европеизации страны и создания “новой породы людей”. Ее реформы начались с создания воспитательных домов и Института благородных девиц (Смольный институт) в 1764 году. Это было первое в России государственное учебное заведение для женщин, что само по себе было прогрессивным шагом.

Иван Бецкой, главный советник императрицы по вопросам образования, был вдохновлён идеями Локка и Руссо. Он верил, что изоляция детей от “невежественной среды” поможет воспитать нравственно совершенных граждан. Однако закрытые заведения не могли решить проблему массового образования.

В 1780-х годах Екатерина обратилась к австрийскому опыту. При помощи сербского педагога Федора Янковича де Мириево была проведена школьная реформа 1786 года. Устав народных училищ создал сеть малых и главных народных училищ в уездных и губернских городах. Впервые была введена классно-урочная система, единые учебные планы и методики. В программу вошли естествознание, география, история и математика. Несмотря на то что крепостное право ограничивало охват крестьянского населения, эта реформа создала каркас государственной системы образования, который развивался в XIX веке.

Роль науки и энциклопедизм в содержании образования

Одной из главных черт просветительской педагогики стало изменение содержания обучения. На смену “словесному” образованию, сосредоточенному на грамматике и риторике, пришло “реальное” образование (Realschule). Мир вещей стал важнее мира слов. Развитие естественных наук — физики, химии, биологии — требовало их включения в школьную программу.

Знаменитая “Энциклопедия, или Толковый словарь наук, искусств и ремёсел” под редакцией Дидро и Д’Аламбера стала символом этой эпохи. Она не просто систематизировала знания, но и реабилитировала ручной труд и технику, подробно описывая производственные процессы. Энциклопедисты считали, что знание технологий и ремёсел необходимо каждому образованному человеку.

В школах начали появляться кабинеты физики с приборами для демонстрации опытов, коллекции минералов и гербарии. История перестала быть перечнем битв и жизнеописаний святых, превращаясь в науку о развитии цивилизации и культуры. География знакомила учеников с многообразием мира, способствуя расширению кругозора и преодолению ксенофобии.

Женское образование: споры и первые шаги

Вопрос об образовании женщин вызывал ожестченные дискуссии среди просветителей. Даже передовые мыслители часто оставались в плену предрассудков. Руссо, например, в “Эмиле” отводил женщине подчинённую роль, считая, что её образование должно ограничиваться ведением домашнего хозяйства и умением нравиться мужу.

Однако были и другие голоса. Мэри Уолстонкрафт в своём трактате “В защиту прав женщин” (1792) подвергла резкой критике систему воспитания, которая делает женщин слабыми и поверхностными существами. Она аргументировала, что женщины обладают таким же разумом, как и мужчины, и должны иметь равный доступ к образованию для развития добродетели и независимости.

Во Франции и Англии расцветала культура салонов, где образованные женщины играли роль интеллектуальных лидеров, организуя дискуссии и поддерживая писателей и учёных. Хотя формальное школьное образование для девочек всё ещё отставало, домашнее образование в аристократических и буржуазных семьях становилось все более серьёзным, включая изучение литературы, языков и даже наук.

Образование и экономические реформы

Просветители ясно видели связь между уровнем образования населения и экономическим процветанием нации. Адам Смит в “Богатстве народов” указывал, что разделение труда ведёт к отупению рабочих, если государство не позаботится об их образовании. Он предлагал создать систему приходских школ, где дети бедняков могли бы получать базовые знания за символическую плату.

Движение физиократов во Франции также подчёркивало важность агрономического образования. Для повышения продуктивности сельского хозяйства крестьяне должны были владеть новыми методами обработки земли. По всей Европе начали возникать экономические общества, которые издавали популярную литературу для фермеров и организовывали сельскохозяйственные школы. Образование становилось фактором капитала.

Секуляризация и борьба с иезуитами

Важным политическим событием, повлиявшим на образование, стало изгнание ордена иезуитов из Португалии, Франции, Испании и других стран во второй половине XVIII века, а затем и временный роспуск ордена папой в 1773 году. Иезуиты веками контролировали элитное среднее образование в католической Европе. Их уход образовал вакуум, который государства вынуждены были заполнить.

Это ускорило процесс перехода школ под контроль светских властей. Имущество иезуитских колледжей часто передавалось новым государственным учреждениям. Освобождение от иезуитской догматики позволило модернизировать учебные планы, ввести преподавание на национальных языках вместо латыни и уделить больше внимания светским наукам.

Влияние на Северную Америку и формирование демократии

In the British colonies of North America, the ideas of the Enlightenment formed the foundation for the formation of the new nation. Benjamin Franklin, the epitome of the American Enlightenment, played a decisive role in the founding of the Philadelphia Academy (later the University of Pennsylvania). Franklin advocated a practical education useful for commerce and public service, favoring the English language and modern sciences over classical antiquities.

Thomas Jefferson believed education was the key to the survival of democracy. He argued that a people could not be simultaneously ignorant and free. Jefferson proposed a plan to create a public education system in Virginia that would include elementary schools for all citizens and the selection of talented students for further education at public expense. Although his plan was not fully implemented during his lifetime, it set the direction for the development of the American school system as an institution that ensured equality of opportunity and the preparation of an informed electorate.

Prison reform and humanization of punishments

The influence of the Enlightenment was not limited to the classroom; it extended to the rehabilitation of criminals. Cesare Beccaria, in his work "On Crimes and Punishments" (1764), opposed torture and the death penalty, arguing from the standpoint of reason and humanism. He argued that the purpose of punishment is not revenge, but the reform of the criminal and the prevention of further crimes.

These ideas led to the concept of the penitentiary system (from the word penitence, meaning repentance). John Howard, in England, studied the state of prisons and proposed reforms aimed at improving sanitary conditions and introducing labor training for prisoners. Prison began to be viewed not as a place of decay, but as a correctional institution where, through work, religious instruction, and education, a person could be reintegrated into society.

Special education: teaching the deaf and blind

The humanism of the Enlightenment also manifested itself in a shift in attitudes toward people with disabilities. Previously, the deaf and blind were considered unteachable. However, in the 18th century, the first methods for educating them emerged. Charles-Michel de l’Épée in France developed a method for teaching the deaf using sign language and founded the first public school for them. Valentin Haüy created a method for teaching the blind to read using raised text, anticipating Braille.

These endeavors proved that intelligence is not dependent on physical disabilities and that, with the right educational methods, such people can be integrated into society. This marked a triumph for sensualist philosophy, which asserted that by developing the remaining senses, one can compensate for the missing ones.

The Legacy of the Enlightenment in the 19th and 20th Centuries

The reforms and ideas of the 18th century laid the foundation for modern educational systems. The principle of compulsory and universal primary education, established in Prussia and Austria, became the norm in developed countries by the end of the 19th century. The secular nature of schools, championed by the French revolutionaries, became established in most democratic countries.

Humboldt’s university model, which grew out of the German Enlightenment, defined the modern research university. The idea that education is a human right, not a privilege of a class, became an axiom of international politics and was enshrined in UN declarations.

Pedagogy ceased to be a set of prescriptions and became a science based on psychology and physiology. Respect for the individual child, proclaimed by Rousseau, formed the foundation of progressive pedagogy in the 20th century (Montessori, Dewey). The belief that education can solve social problems and lead humanity to progress remains the primary legacy of the Age of Reason, shaping our efforts to reform schools today.

Detailing the Curriculum: From Scholasticism to Realism

The shift in educational content occurred unevenly but steadily. The traditional trivium (grammar, rhetoric, dialectic) and quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music) were revised. Latin, which had served as the language of science and diplomacy for centuries, began to lose its position. In Germany and France, "realschule" schools, aimed at merchants and artisans, emerged.

These schools emphasized living languages. Knowledge of French became mandatory for educated people in Europe, displacing Latin as the lingua franca. Mathematics ceased to be an abstract subject; textbooks incorporated problems related to commerce, navigation, and artillery. Geography was transformed from a description of biblical sites to a study of resources, trade routes, and the political structure of states.

History occupied a special place. Previously, it served as a source of moral examples. Voltaire and other Enlightenment figures transformed history into an analytical discipline, studying the causes of the rise and fall of nations, the role of climate, laws, and trade. This shaped students’ political consciousness and understanding of cause-and-effect relationships in social life.

Publishing and Literacy

The rise of literacy was inextricably linked to the development of printing and the falling cost of paper. The Age of Enlightenment gave birth to a new type of literature — periodicals and newspapers. In England, The Spectator and The Tatler were read in coffeehouses, where they discussed politics and morality. This created a sphere of public opinion independent of the court.

Учебная литература также изменилась. Ян Амос Коменский в XVII веке уже предложил иллюстрированные учебники (“Мир чувственных вещей в картинках”), но именно в XVIII веке детская литература выделилась в отдельный жанр. Появились книги, написанные специально для детей, с учётом их интересов и уровня понимания. Издатели поняли, что образование — это огромный рынок. Буквари, катехизисы, хрестоматии печатались тысячными тиражами, проникая даже в отдалённые деревни через бродячих торговцев.

Критика Просвещения и контрреформы

Нельзя полагать, что шествие просветительских идей было триумфальным и беспрепятственным. Сопротивление было сильным. Консервативные круги, особенно католическая церковь, видели в секуляризации образования угрозу вере и морали. После Французской революции и наполеоновских войн во многих странах Европы наступила реакция. Правительства, испуганные якобинским террором, пытались вернуть контроль над школами церкви.

В России в последние годы правления Екатерины II и при Павле I цензура усилилась, а ввоз иностранных книг был ограничен. Многие просветительские проекты были свёрнуты или заморожены. Однако джинн уже был выпущен из бутылки. Технические потребности экономики и военного дела не позволяли полностью вернуться к схоластике. Даже консервативные правительства были вынуждены поддерживать развитие технического и естественного образования, пытаясь при этом ограничить преподавание политических и философских дисциплин.

Влияние на медицину и медицинское образование

Просвещение кардинально изменило подход к подготовке врачей. Медицина перестала быть теоретической дисциплиной, основанной на текстах Галена и Гиппократа. Клиническое наблюдение и анатомирование трупов стали обязательной частью обучения. В Вене, Лейдене и Эдинбурге возникли передовые медицинские школы.

Государства начали регулировать медицинскую практику, требуя дипломов и экзаменов. Борьба с шарлатанством стала частью государственной политики “медицинской полиции”. Вводились прививки от оспы (вариоляция, а затем вакцинация Дженнера), что требовало широкой просветительской кампании среди населения. Врачи становились агентами просвещения, неся гигиенические знания в массы.

Архитектура образовательных пространств

Изменение методов обучения потребовало новой архитектуры. Тёмные, тесные классы средневековых школ не подходили для новых задач. Просветители и архитекторы начали проектировать школьные здания, соответствующие требованиям гигиены и педагогики.

Большие окна для естественного освещения, хорошая вентиляция, отдельные классы для разных возрастов, рекреационные зоны для игр на свежем воздухе — эти принципы начали внедряться в передовых учебных заведениях. Школа должна была быть “храмом разума”, светлым и упорядоченным пространством, дисциплинирующим ум и тело.

Глобальное измерение: колонии и миссии

Европейское Просвещение экспортировалось в колонии, часто переплетаясь с миссионерской деятельностью. В Латинской Америке, Индии и на Филиппинах создавались учебные заведения по европейскому образцу. Хотя их основной целью часто была христианизация, они также становились проводниками западной науки и языков.

В то же время, столкновение с другими культурами (Китай, Индия) заставляло европейцев переосмысливать свои образовательные традиции. Интерес к конфуцианской системе экзаменов для чиновников, например, влиял на дискуссии о введении конкурсных экзаменов для государственной службы в Европе. Просвещение становилось глобальным диалогом, хотя и с доминированием европейского голоса.

Социальная мобильность и формирование среднего класса

Одним из самых ощутимых результатов образовательных реформ Просвещения стал рост социальной мобильности. В сословном обществе рождение определяло судьбу. Однако расширение доступа к образованию создало каналы для вертикального перемещения. Сыновья ремесленников, торговцев и даже зажиточных крестьян через университеты и государственную службу могли достичь высоких постов.

Появление слоя образованных профессионалов — юристов, врачей, инженеров, чиновников, писателей — сформировало костяк буржуазного общества. Эти люди, вооружённые знаниями и критическим мышлением, становились носителями новых ценностей: меритократии (власти достойных), профессиональной этики и гражданской ответственности. Именно этот класс стал движущей силой политических реформ XIX века, требуя участия в управлении государством наравне с родовой аристократией.

Воспитание чувств и эстетическое образование

Рационализм Просвещения часто противопоставляют романтизму, но это упрощение. Многие просветители, включая Шефтсбери и Дидро, уделяли большое внимание воспитанию чувств и эстетического вкуса. Считалось, что искусство облагораживает нравы. В программу обучения дворян и буржуа входило рисование, музыка и танец.

Театр рассматривался как “школа нравов”. Драматурги, такие как Лессинг в Германии, писали пьесы, ставящие острые моральные и социальные вопросы. Посещение театра и обсуждение постановок становились частью образовательного процесса. Музеи, открывавшиеся для публики (Британский музей в 1753, Лувр в 1793), превращались в образовательные институции, где граждане могли приобщиться к наследию прошлого и развить свой вкус.

Генезис гражданского образования

Именно в эпоху Просвещения зародилось понятие гражданского образования. В античности и средневековье лояльность была направлена на монарха или церковь. Просветители выдвинули концепцию лояльности абстрактному государству, закону и нации. Школа должна была воспитывать патриота, знающего свои права и обязанности.

The first civics textbooks were written in the United States and revolutionary France, explaining the constitution and principles of republican government. Singing patriotic songs and studying national history and geography served the purpose of national consolidation. Education became a tool for nation-building, knitting disparate regions and dialects into a unified cultural space.

Ecological prerequisites: man and environment

Although the term "ecology" appeared later, the Enlightenment’s interest in nature laid the foundations for ecological awareness. The study of natural history taught students to see the interconnectedness of the living world. The gardens and parks surrounding schools (especially philanthropinums) were not just a place of relaxation but also a laboratory. Students tended plants and observed the weather and animals.

This fostered an understanding that humans are part of nature and that sound management requires knowledge of natural laws. Agronomic knowledge disseminated through schools facilitated the transition to more intensive and sustainable farming, which was vital as the population grew.

Long-Term Echo: From the Enlightenment to Modernity

A look at modern schools reveals numerous artifacts of the Enlightenment. The class-lesson system, the division of subjects, the secular nature of education, state certification of teachers, exams, and textbooks — all these are the legacy of the 18th century.

But the most important legacy is the faith in education itself. We continue to believe that knowledge is power, that education is the key to social success and solving global problems. Critical thinking, which the enlighteners contrasted with dogma, remains the most essential skill in the information society.

The paradox of the Enlightenment — the combination of high humanism and disciplinary control — also persists. School remains a place where children are simultaneously liberated through knowledge and shaped (disciplined) to meet the needs of society. The debates about the balance between freedom and discipline, initiated by Locke and Rousseau, continue to this day, proving that we still live within the intellectual paradigm created by the thinkers of the Age of Reason.

Professionalization of teaching and the creation of teaching staff

The implementation of the Enlightenment’s ambitious plans was hampered by the personnel issue. Until the mid-18th century, teaching in primary schools was often the province of random people: retired soldiers, ruined artisans, or students who had dropped out. Teachers occupied an extremely low position in the social hierarchy, often dependent on the charity of the local community or landowner. Remuneration was meager and irregular, often in kind.

The situation began to change with the emergence of teacher training seminaries. In Prussia, the first such seminary opened in 1732 in Stettin, and then in Berlin under the direction of Johann Julius Hecker. In Austria, the normal school model also included mandatory teacher training. Candidates studied not only the subject they would teach but also teaching methods, the basics of psychology, and school record keeping.

The state began to view teachers as its agents among the people. Certifications and examinations for teaching privileges were introduced. Although the financial situation of rural teachers improved slowly, their status was transformed. They became bearers of state ideology and culture, promoters of literacy and hygiene. By the end of the century, teachers had become recognizable and respected figures in the European village, competing for influence with the priest.

The Reading Revolution and the Emergence of the Public Sphere

The spread of literacy gave rise to a phenomenon that contemporaries called the "reading revolution." Whereas previously reading had been intensive — a person would reread the same book (usually the Bible or a prayer book) throughout their life — now reading became extensive. People began to consume vast quantities of diverse literature: newspapers, magazines, novels, almanacs, and political pamphlets.

The book market responded with an explosive increase in circulation. Reading rooms and commercial libraries emerged, where books could be borrowed for a small fee. This made literature accessible to those who could not afford expensive volumes. Coffeehouses and salons sprang up in England and France, where reading newspapers aloud and discussing the news became a daily ritual.

Conservative critics sounded the alarm, speaking of a "reading frenzy" or "reading mania" (Lesewut in Germany). They feared that peasants’ and women’s access to secular novels and political texts would lead to a decline in morals and social unrest. However, this process was unstoppable. The printed word became a tool for shaping public opinion, capable of influencing government decisions.

Technical and military education as an engine of progress

In the 18th century, warfare ceased to be a contest of brute force and chivalrous prowess, becoming a science. The development of artillery and fortification required officers to possess a thorough knowledge of mathematics, geometry, and physics. Traditional noble education, focused on the humanities and fencing, did not provide these competencies.

States began to create specialized military engineering and artillery schools. In France, the Royal Engineering School of Mézières (École royale du génie de Mézières) was founded in 1748. Admission was limited to passing a rigorous entrance exam in mathematics. This undermined class privileges: a talented member of the Third Estate could make a career out of their knowledge, while an ignorant nobleman remained out of work.

Similar processes were underway in the navy. Navigation required mastery of astronomy and complex calculations. Naval academies in England, Russia, and Spain became centers for the dissemination of the exact sciences. Graduates of these institutions often became not only military personnel but also engineers, cartographers, and explorers, applying their knowledge to civilian activities, such as the construction of canals and bridges.

Scandinavian vector of enlightenment

In the Nordic countries, the ideas of the Enlightenment were built on the solid foundation of Lutheran literacy. As early as the 17th century, the Church of Sweden required parishioners to be able to read so they could independently study Scripture. By the 18th century, literacy rates in Sweden and Denmark were among the highest in the world, reaching a significant portion of the peasantry.

Sweden’s "Age of Liberty" (1718–1772) brought unprecedented political reforms. In 1766, the Freedom of the Press Act was passed — the first law in the world to abolish prior censorship and guarantee access to government documents. This stimulated the rapid development of the political press and pamphlet literature.

The universities of Uppsala and Lund became centers of scientific education. Carl Linnaeus, who worked in Uppsala, reformed biological classification, attracting students from across Europe. His "apostles" embarked on expeditions around the world. In Denmark, the reforms of Minister Struensee, although short-lived, attempted to modernize the school system and legal proceedings in the spirit of the radical Enlightenment.

Unification of national languages

Educational reforms played a decisive role in the standardization of national languages. Before the Enlightenment, the populations of most European countries spoke a multitude of dialects, often without understanding each other. The state required a unified language for effective governance and the creation of a unified legal framework.

School became an instrument of linguistic unification. Textbooks were written in a standard language based on the capital’s dialect or literary norm. Local dialects were banished from the classroom, often under threat of punishment. This was a painful process, leading to the marginalization of regional cultures, but it was necessary for the formation of nations in the modern sense.

Academies of sciences and literary societies worked to codify language. Authoritative dictionaries and grammars were created: "Dictionary of the French Academy," "A Dictionary of the English Language" by Samuel Johnson (1755), and "Dictionary of the Russian Academy" (1789–1794). These works established spelling norms and word meanings, making language a tool for the precise transmission of knowledge and laws.

Transformation of art education

The arts also underwent rationalization. The medieval guild system, where masters passed on secrets to apprentices over years of practice, gave way to academic education. Art academies opened across Europe: in Vienna, St. Petersburg, London, and Madrid.

Education at the academies was built on a scientific foundation. Students studied anatomy, perspective, art history, and geometry. Drawing from life and copying antique models became mandatory training. Art ceased to be considered a craft and was elevated to the rank of an intellectual activity.

Academies established strict hierarchies of genres, favoring history painting over landscapes or still lifes. Regular exhibitions (such as the Salons in Paris) shaped public taste and the art market. Criticism became a distinct genre of literature, educating the viewer and explaining the artist’s intentions.

Features of the Enlightenment in Southern Europe

In the Catholic countries of Southern Europe — Italy, Spain, and Portugal — Enlightenment reforms encountered powerful resistance from the Inquisition and traditional church structures. Here, the main initiators of change were monarchs and their ministers, who pursued a policy of "enlightened absolutism."

In Spain, under Charles III, extensive university reforms were carried out. Curricula were purged of outdated scholasticism, and the study of Newtonian physics and modern philosophy was introduced. Economic Societies of Friends of the Country (Sociedades Económicas de Amigos del País) established professional schools, disseminated agronomic knowledge, and combated prejudices that hindered economic development.

In Italy, fragmented into numerous states, Milan and Naples became centers of education. Cesare Beccaria and the Verri brothers published the magazine "Cafe" in Milan, advocating for legal and educational reforms. Neapolitan economists and lawyers developed projects for the modernization of southern Italy, focusing on public education as a means of combating poverty and banditry.

Material culture of childhood

Changing views on children were reflected in the material world. A children’s goods industry emerged. While previously children were dressed as miniature versions of adults (with corsets, wigs, and swords), in the second half of the 18th century, comfortable clothing that did not restrict movement became fashionable. This was directly linked to the hygienic ideas of Locke and Rousseau.

The toy market began to develop. Toys ceased to be mere trinkets and acquired an educational function. Puzzles (cut-up maps) were used to teach geography. Dollhouses served as models for teaching girls housekeeping. Books were supplied with high-quality engravings, making the learning process visually appealing. The appearance of specialized children’s furniture (desks, chairs) in schools and homes demonstrated the recognition of the physiological characteristics of the growing body.

The Birth of Andragogy and Adult Self-Education

Enlightenment wasn’t limited to school age. An understanding emerged that learning could and should continue throughout life. Masonic lodges, which became extremely popular in the 18th century, functioned as schools of moral self-improvement and philosophical education for adult men.

Scientific lectures attracted a wide audience, including women. Demonstrations of experiments with electricity or hot-air balloons drew packed halls. It was entertainment, but an intellectual one. Craftsmen and workers united in mutual aid societies, which often organized evening classes to teach literacy and numeracy. In Great Britain, at the end of the century, mechanics’ institutes began to emerge — the forerunners of the modern system of vocational retraining.

Geographical discoveries and expanding horizons

The expeditions of James Cook, La Pérouse, and other explorers had a tremendous educational impact on European society. The travelers’ reports, descriptions of flora, fauna, and native customs were avidly read by the public. This undermined the Eurocentric worldview.

Comparing European customs with those of Tahiti or North America forced philosophers to ask uncomfortable questions about the "natural state" of man and the justice of civilization. Ethnography emerged as a tool for European self-knowledge through the lens of the "other." Information about non-European cultures filtered into geography and history textbooks, though it was often distorted by the colonial gaze.

Limits and contradictions of the educational project

Despite tremendous successes, reality often lagged behind theoretical constructs. Universal education in many countries remained a truism. In rural areas, children continued to work in the fields, attending school only in the winter. The quality of education in rural areas remained poor.

There was a gap between the elite education of the nobility and bourgeoisie and the utilitarian education of the masses. Many educators, including Voltaire, feared the overeducation of the rabble, believing that peasants only needed to know how to read, write, and know the catechism to be obedient and hardworking. The idea of ​​social stability often conflicted with the ideal of universal enlightenment.

Nevertheless, the mechanism was set in motion. The idea that ignorance is a social evil, and education a duty of the state and a citizen’s right, took root in the public consciousness. Institutions created or reformed in the 18th century continued to evolve, but their direction was set precisely during the Age of Enlightenment. This period forever changed the intellectual map of the world, making knowledge the primary resource for the development of civilization.